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THE   AUTHOR'S   SON 
Reared  from  birth  on  milk  pasteurized  and  modified  in  the  home 


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Milk  and 

Milk  Products  in 
the  Home 


A  Book  Intended  for  Students  in  Home  Economics 
and  for  Housekeepers  in  General 


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JOHN  MICHELS,  B.S.A.,  M.S. 

Professor  of  Dairying  and  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  New  York 

State  School  of  Agriculture 

Author  and  Publisher  of  "Dairy  Farming,"  "Market  Dairying 
and  Milk  Products,"  "Creamery  Buttermaking" 


ILLUSTRATED 


FARMINGDALE,  NEW  YORK 
Published  by  the  Author 

1915 
All  Rights  Reserved 


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COPYRIGHT,  BY 

JOHN  MICHELS 

1915 


PREFACE 

The  cow  has  been  properly  called  the  foster 
mother  of  the  human  race.  Her  products,  in  im- 
portance, overshadow  those  from  any  other  source. 
Through  all  the  centuries,  from  ancient  times  to  the 
present,  milk  and  milk  products  have  constituted 
an  important  part  of  the  human  dietary.  In  modern 
times  the  use  of  milk  has  become  especially  import- 
ant because  thousands  of  babies  are  forced  to  rely 
upon  it  as  their  only  source  of  food. 

Good  milk  is  an  economical  and  easily  digest- 
ible food,  and  so  are  many  of  the  products  made 
from  it.  To  impress  this  fact  upon  housekeepers 
and  students  in  home  economics  has  been  one  of  the 
aims  of  this  book.  There  is  also  need  of  better 
familiarizing  consumers  with  the  various  grades  of 
market  milk  and  milk  products  and  to  show  their 
uses  and  value  in  the  dietary. 

Unfortunately  a  great  deal  of  milk  placed  upon 
the  market  is  unsafe  as  a  food  because  of  ignor- 
ance and  carelessness  in  the  methods  employed  in 
its  production  and  handling.  That  milk  is  often  a 
dangerous  food  is  amply  attested  by  the  hundreds 
of  babies  which  it  destroys  annually,  and  by  the 
numerous  milk-borne  epidemics  of  contagious  dis- 
eases such  as  tuberculosis,  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria 
etc. — diseases  which  not  only  affect  babies  and 
children  but  people  of  all  ages.  Special  efforts  have 

5 

M      193 


6  MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE;    HOME 

therefore  been  made  in  this  book  to  outline  simple, 
practical  home  methods  of  treating  and  handling 
milk  by  which  it  is  made  a  safe  food  for  babies  and 
adults. 

For  many  years  part  of  the  author's  time  has 
been  given  to  teaching  dairy  subjects  to  students 
in  home  economics.  The  experience  thus  gained  has 
been  of  material  value  in  several  ways :  it  has  im- 
pressed upon  him  the  conviction  that  the  average 
housekeeper  knows  far  too  little  of  the  relation 
which  milk  bears  to  the  welfare  of  the  family;  it 
has  also  materially  assisted  him  in  so  arranging  and 
treating  the  subject  matter  as  to  make  the  book 
especially  adaptable  as  a  text  for  students  in  home 
economics. 

JOHN  MICHELS 

June  1,  1915. 


uilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltS 


M-  f  f  T~J     s~*i  s~\  ~ww  r      *         i  i 

iHE  COW  ^s  the 

|  foster  mother  of 
I  the  human  race. 
I  From  the  day  of 
the  ancient  Hindoo  to  this 
time  have  the  thoughts  of 
men  turned  to  this  kindly 
and  beneficent  creature 
as  one  of  the  chief  sustain- 
ing forces  of  human  life. 


W.  D.  HOARD 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 

Chapter  I     Composition   of   Milk 9 

Chapter  II     Milk  as  a  Food 13 

Chapter         III     Physical    Properties    of    Milk 

and  Cream   16 

Chapter          IV     Common   Milk  Bacteria 19 

Chapter     '       V     Care  of  Milk  in  the  Home 23 

Chapter          VI     Market  Classes  of  Milk 27 

Chapter        VII     Milk-Born^e  Disease  Bacteria. .   33 
Chapter       VIII     Pasteurization    of    Milk     and 

Cream 37 

Chapter          IX     Modified  Milk   44 

Chapter  X     Condensed     and     Evaporated 

'I  ,  ,      Milks    53 

Chapter          XI     Sour  Milk    56 

Chapter        XII     Whey,  Skimmilk  and  Cottage 

••       ;  ,       Cheese   62 

Chapter      XIII     Cream    66 

Chapter       XIV     Ice  Cream 71 

Chapter        XV     Fancy  Cheese 76 

Chapter       XVI     Fancy  Dairy  Dishes 79 

Chapter     XVII     Butter   and   Oleomargarine ...   82 

Chapter   XVIII     Common  Cheese    89 

Chapter       XIX     Production    of    Clean,    Whole- 
some Milk 92 

Index  99 


8 


•     • 

•>      » 


•  » 


• »  »    • ,  »     » 

•I  1    V  . 


CHAPTER  I       *•  •"' 
COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 

Cow's  milk  has  an  average  composition  as  follows : 

Water    87.2  per  cent. 

Casein    2.8  per  cent. 

Albumen   0.6  per  cent. 

Milk  sugar 4.9  per  cent. 

Butterf at  3.8  per  cent. 

Ash 0.7  per  cent. 

Enzymes Trace 

100.0  per  cent. 

The  term  "per  cent.'  applied  to  the  constituents 
of  milk  means  pounds  in  100  pounds.  Thus,  3.0  per 
cent,  of  casein  means  that  there  are  three  pounds  of 
casein  in  a  hundred  pounds  of  milk. 

In  speaking  of  milk,  the  terms  "four  per  cent, 
milk,'  "five  per  cent,  milk,'  etc.,  are  frequently 
used,  meaning  milk  containing  four  and  five  per 
cent,  butterfat,  respectively.  Such  terms  as  "whole 
milk1  and  "normal  milk'  are  often  used  in  place 
of  the  term  "milk,"  but  they  mean  exactly  the  same 
thing. 

MILK  CONSTITUENTS 

Water.  The  water  of  milk  is  identically  the  same 
as  any  chemically  pure  water.  While  milk  is  a 
fluid  substance,  it  contains  less  water  than  many 
common  vegetables.  Parsnips,  string  beans  and  as- 
paragus, for  example,  contain  more  water  than  aver- 
age market  milk. 


IO          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE)    HOME 


t    ,r    c       r 


Casein  and  Albumen.    These  substances  belong  to 

t      it       #cccc          (        c 

•t ".;  '-rtfee/gtqtip',  of  .nutrients  known  as  proteids.  They  are 
rich  in  nitrogen  and,  like  the  lean  of  meat  and  the 
white  of  egg,  serve  the  purpose  of  building  up 
muscles,  hair  and  tendons,  and  may  also  supply  heat 
and  energy. 

Casein  is  a  white,  insoluble  substance  suspended 
in  milk  in  an  extremely  finely  divided  condition.  It 
is  the  most  important  tissue  building  constituent 
of  milk  and  forms  the  basis  of  an  almost  endless 
variety  of  cheese.  The  curdling  of  milk  is  due  to 
the  casein,  which  is  easily  precipitated  by  acids. 
Thus,  in  the  ordinary  souring  of  milk  enough  acid 
is  eventually  produced  to  curdle  (coagulate)  it. 
Rennet  extract  also  curdles  the  casein  and,  there- 
fore, the  milk  of  which  the  casein  is  a  part. 

Albumen  is  a  soluble  substance  which  is  not 
affected  by  rennet  or  acids  but  curdles  when  heated 
to  170°  F.  In  composition  it  very  closely  resembles 
casein,  differing  from  it  chiefly  in  being  rich  in  sul- 
phur while  the  casein  is  rich  phosphorous. 

Milk  Sugar.  This  constituent,  unlike  the  casein 
and  albumen,  contains  no  nitrogen.  It  belongs  to 
the  group  of  nutrients  known  as  carbohydrates, 
whose  purpose  in  nutrition  is  to  supply  heat  and 
energy  and  to  store  reserve  energy  in  the  form  of 
fat.  As  a  source  of  energy,  carbohydrates  are  equal 
to  proteids,  pound  for  pound. 

Milk  sugar,  which  is  known  chemically  as  lactose, 
has  the  same  composition  as  cane  sugar;  it  differs 
from  this,  however,  in  being  more  digestible  and 


COMPOSITION    OF    MILK 


II 


only  faintly  sweet.  When  milk  sours  part  of  the 
sugar  is  changed  into  lactic  acid  through  the  agency 
of  bacteria,  which  are  described  on  page  19. 

Butterfat.  This  substance  belongs  to  the  third 
great  group  of  nutrients  known  as  fats,  which  con- 
tain the  same  chemical  elements  as  the  carbohy- 
drates but  in  different  proportions.  As  a  food,  one 
pound  of  fat  is  equal  to  two  and  one-fourth  pounds 
of  carbohydrates.  Fats  play  the  same  part  in  nutri- 
tion as  the  carbohydrates,  supplying  heat  and  en- 
ergy and  storing  surplus  energy  in  the  form  of  fat. 

Butterfat  is  a  compound  fat,  being  made  up  of  at 
least  nine  distinct  fats.  The  most  important  of 
these  fats  is  butyrin,  which  is  present  in  no  veg- 
etable or  other  animal  fats.  Butyrin  is  volatile 
and  has  a  very  pleasing  aroma. 

Figure  1  shows  the  appearance  of  butterfat  when 
viewed  in  milk  under  a  high  power  microscope.  It 


Figure    1 — Butterfat    globules    in    milk.      Dark    spots    are    bacteria — 

some  in  chains    (Russell) 


12          MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS   IN    THE   HOME) 

is  suspended  in  the  form  of  extremely  small  globules 
numbering  about  100,000,000  per  drop  of  milk.  It 
is  this  fine  division  of  the  butterfat,  together  with 
its  large  percentage  of  soluble  fats,  which,  to  a  large 
extent,  accounts  for  its  superior  digestibility. 
Another  matter  which  aids  in  the  digestion  of  but- 
terfat is  its  low  melting  point.  Butterfat  melts  at 
about  90°  F.  while  other  common  animal  fats  melt 
at  considerably  higher  temperatures. 

Ash.  This  is  the  mineral  portion  of  milk  and 
exists  mostly  in  solution.  It  is  composed  of  lime, 
magnesia,  potash,  soda,  prosphoric  acid,  chlorine, 
sulphuric  acid  and  iron.  Its  chief  purpose  in  nutri- 
tion is  to  build  up  bones,  teeth  and  blood. 

Enzymes.  These  are  chemical  ferments  which  aid 
in  digestion.  It  has  been  shown  by  experiments 
that  ordinary  foods  when  taken  in  conjunction  with 
milk  are  better  digested  than  when  taken  without 
the  milk.  The  greater  digestibility  so  found  is 
credited  to  the  digestive  ferments  contributed  by 
the  milk.  One  of  the  objections  to  boiling  milk  is 
the  destruction  of  its  enzymes  by  the  high  tempera- 
ture. 

Milk  Solids.  The  milk  solids,  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  " total  solids,"  include  all  of  the  milk  but  the 
water.  If  a  sample  of  milk  be  kept  at  the  boiling 
temperature  until  all  the  water  has  been  evaporated, 
the  dry,  solid  residue  constitutes  the  solids  of  milk. 
The  solids  less  the  fat  are  known  as  the  "  solid  not 
fat'  or  the  "non  fatty"  solids. 


CHAPTER  II 
MILK  AS  A  FOOD 

As  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter,  milk  is  a  com- 
plete food,  containing  all  the  elements  necessary  to 
sustain  life ;  moreover,  it  contains  these  elements  in 
proper  proportions  and  in  easily  digestible  and  as- 
similable form.  Milk  is  also  greatly  valued  for  its 
paiatability. 

It  is  these  valuable  qualities  which  have  made  milk 
so  prominent  in  the  diet  of  all  classes  of  people.  For 
growing  children,  milk  has  no  satisfactory  substi- 
tute ;  for  thousands  of  babies  deprived  of  their  moth- 
er's  milk,  it  is  indispensable. 

Milk  is  rich  in  proteids  and  mineral  matter,  ma- 
terials required  in  building  up  muscles  and  bones. 
This  is  why  milk  is  so  essential  for  normal  growth 
and  body  development  in  children. 

Unfortunately  too  many  consumers  look  upon  milk 
as  a  luxury.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  at  prevailing 
prices,  milk  is  a  cheap  food,  especially  when  com- 
pared with  eggs  and  meat.  One  quart  of  good  milk 
is  equal  to  about  eight  eggs  or  three-fourths  of  a 
pound  of  steak. 

Variations  in  Quality.  Wide  variations  exist  at 
present  in  the  quality  of  market  milks.  Analyses  of 
normal  market  milks  show  a  variation  in  fat  content 
of  from  3  to  5.5  per  cent.  And  there  is  a  great  deal 
of  milk  sold  illegally  containing  only  2.5  per  cent, 
butterfat. 

13 


14          MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE   HOME 


Particularly  wide  are  the  variations  in  the  quality 
of  milk  from  individual  cows  as  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing maximum  and  minimum  composition : 

Per  Cent. 
Maximum          Minimum 


Water   

90.69 

80.32 

Butterf  at  

6.47 

1.67 

Casein   

4.23 

1.79 

Albumen  , 

1.44 

.25 

Sugar  

6.03 

2.11 

Ash 

1.21 

.35 

Quality  as  Affected  by  Breeds.  The  quality  of 
milk  differs  markedly  with  different  breeds  of  cattle. 
Some  breeds  produce  rich  milk,  others  relatively 
poor  milk,  as  shown  by  the  following  table: 


BREED 

BUTTER- 
FAT 

CASEIN 

ALBUMEN 

MILK 
SUGAR 

ASH 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per 
cent. 

Ayrshire  . 

3.8 

2.5 

0.55 

4.9 

0.70 

Guernsey. 

5.4 

2.9 

0.60 

5.0 

0.75 

Jersey  — 

5.7 

3.0 

0.60 

5.0 

0.75 

Holstein.. 

3.4 

2.4 

0.50 

4.8 

0.65 

With  the  wide  variations  existing  in  the  quality  of 
milk  it  should  be  paid  for  according  to  its  quality. 
It  is  fair  to  say  that,  in  point  of  food  value,  a  quart 
of  milk  containing  5.5  per  cent,  butterfat  is  worth  at 
least  fifty  per  cent,  more  than  a  quart  containing 
only  3  per  cent,  butterfat.  In  other  words,  when  a 
consumer  pays  twelve  cents  a  quart  for  5.5  per  cent, 
milk,  he  is  paying  no  more  for  the  actual  amount  of 
food  he  gets  than  when  he  pays  eight  cents  a  quart 
for  3  per  cent.  milk. 


MILK    AS   A   FOOD  15 

It  is  as  much  a  business  proposition  for  consumers 
to  consider  the  food  value  of  milk  as  it  is  for  them 
to  consider  the  quality  of  the  cloth  they  buy. 

Value  of  Clean,  Wholesome  Milk.  The  real  value 
of  milk  cannot  be  judged  entirely  from  its  composi- 
tion. For  babies  especially,  cleanliness  and  purity 
should  chiefly  determine  the  price  to  pay  for  milk. 
With  milk  as  with  many  other  commodities,  the  best 
is  the  cheapest  in  the  long  run.  It  costs  more  to 
produce  clean  milk  than  just  common  milk  and  con- 
sumers must  expect  to  pay  for  the  extra  expense  in- 
volved in  furnishing  clean,  wholesome  milk. 

Various  Uses.  Milk  is  used  in  so  many  different 
ways  that  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  any  family  can  get 
along  without  it.  Its  use  in  custards,  puddings, 
cakes,  cookies,  muffins,  bread,  biscuits,  gravies, 
soups,  chowders  and  scores  of  other  ways,  makes 
milk  well-nigh  indispensable.  It  is  not  the  province 
of  this  book  to  discuss  the  uses  of  milk  in  cooking 
because  this  information  can  be  obtained  from  nearly 
all  cook  books. 


CHAPTER  III 
PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM 

Specific  Gravity.  By  specific  gravity  is  meant  the 
weight  of  one  substance  compared  with  that  of 
another.  "Water  is  taken  as  a  standard  for  compari- 
son and  its  specific  gravity  is  1.  Milk  has  an  aver- 
age specific  gravity  of  1.032,  being  slightly  heavier 
than  water.  A  vessel  holding  1,000  pounds  of  water 
would  hold  1,032  pounds  of  milk. 

To  find  the  weight  of  a  gallon  of  milk  multiply  the 
weight  of  a  standard  gallon  of  water  (8.35  Ibs.)  by 
the  specific  gravity  of  milk.  Thus  8.35x1.032=8.62 
pounds,  the  weight  of  a  gallon  of  milk. 

Cream  is  lighter  than  milk  because  its  chief  con- 
stituent is  butterfat,  which  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
only  0.9.  Hence  the  richer  the  cream  the  lighter  it 
is.  Cream  containing  20  per  cent,  butterfat  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  about  1.01. 

Viscosity.  This  refers  to  the  adhesiveness  or 
stickiness  of  milk  and  cream.  Milk  is  more  viscous 
than  water,  and  cream  is  still  more  viscous  than 
milk. 

Viscosity  is  an  important  property  to  consider  in 
connection  with  cream.  In  fresh,  warm  cream  the 
viscosity  is  considerably  less  than  in  old,  cold  cream 
of  the  same  richness.  A  fresh,  warm  cream  may 
therefore  appear  to  be  lacking  in  richness  when  in 
reality  it  is  lacking  in  viscosity.  For  the  same  rea- 
son fresh,  warm  cream  is  difficult  to  whip.  Age  and 

16 


PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES   OF    MILK   AND    CREAM         17 

low  temperature  are  about  as  important  as  the  rich- 
ness of  the  cream  in  getting  cream  to  whip  satisfac- 
torily. 

When  cream  is  heated  to  high  temperatures,  its 
viscosity  is  lessened  even  when  subsequently  cooled 
to  a  low  temperature.  This  is  due,  in  part  at  least, 
to  the  fact  that  the  heating  destroys  the  soluble  lime, 
because  the  viscosity  can  be  restored  by  adding  lime 
in  a  soluble  form.  Lime  will  increase  the  viscosity 
of  any  cream,  whether  heated  or  not,  and  hence  will 
make  it  appear  richer  than  it  actually  is.  For  this 
reason  a  great  deal  of  commercial  cream  has  lime 
added  to  it.  The  quantity  required  is  so  small,  how- 
ever, that  it  will  escape  detection,  even  by  experts. 

Acidity.  Fresh  milk  when  tested  by  the  usual 
alkaline  methods,  shows  an  acidity  of  about  0.14 
per  cent.  When  it  reaches  the  consumer  the  acidity, 
as  a  rule,  is  close  to  0.2  per  cent.  This  is  important 
to  remember  when  cow's  milk  is  substituted  for 
breast  milk  in  infant  feeding.  Breast  milk  shows  no 
acidity,  and  for  this  reason  when  babies  are  fed  on 
cow's  milk  the  acidity  is  first  neutralized  by  the 
addition  of  lime  water. 

Absorbing  Powers.  Milk  is  peculiarly  susceptible 
to  odors,  absorbing  them  as  readily  as  a  sponge  ab- 
sorbs water.  The  same  is  true  of  cream.  These 
products  must,  therefore,  never  be  exposed  to  strong 
odors,  not  even  those  of  vegetables,  fruits,  cakes, 
cheese  and  the  like. 

Color.  The  color  of  milk  varies  with  the  breed  of 
cattle  and  with  the  character  of  the  feed.  Holstein- 
Friesian  milk  has  a  white  color,  while  that  of  Jer- 
seys is  a  light  yellow.  Guernsey  milk  has  the  rich- 


l8          MIUC   AND    MII.K    PRODUCTS   IN    THE    HOME 

est  color  of  any  breed,  being  a  deep  yellow.  When 
cattle  feed  on  pasture  or  other  green  feed  the  color 
of  the  milk  becomes  more  yellow.  For  these  rea- 
sons the  color  of  milk  is  not  a  reliable  indication  of 
richness. 

Carotin   is   the   substance   which   gives   milk   its 
natural  color. 


CHAPTER  IV 
COMMON  MILK  BACTERIA 

What  Bacteria  Are.  The  term  bacteria  is  applied 
to  the  smallest  of  living  plants,  which  can  be  seen 
only  under  the  highest  powers  of  the  microscope. 
Each  of  these  plants  is  made  up  of  a  single  cell. 
They  are  so  small  that  30,000  of  them  laid  side  by 
side  will  measure  only  about  an  inch.  Their  pres- 
ence is  almost  universal,  being  found  in  the  air, 
water,  soil,  milk,  decaying  matter,  etc.  In  everyday 
language  bacteria  are  usually  spoken  of  as  germs. 


0 


Figure  2  —  Different  shapes  of  bacteria  (Lehmann  &  Neumann) 

Rapidity  of  Growth.  Under  favorable  conditions 
bacteria  grow  with  marvelous  rapidity,  some  repro- 
ducing themselves  a  million  times  in  twenty-four 
hours.  The  majority  of  bacteria  require  for  best 
growth  a  warm,  moist  and  nutritious  medium  such 
as  milk,  in  which  an  exceedingly  varied  and  active 
life  is  possible. 

19 


2O          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE   HC-ME 

Most  bacteria  grow  rapidly  at  temperatures  be- 
tween 60°  and  100°  F.  ;  some  are  capable  of  multiply- 
ing at  freezing  temperatures,  while  others  grow  best 
at  temperatures  approximating  120°  F. 

Beneficial  and  Injurious  Bacteria.  A  great  many 
species  of  bacteria  are  entirely  harmless  and  some 
are  decidedly  beneficial.  Other  kinds  produce  unde- 
sirable flavors.  Most  dangerous  and  harmful  of  all 
are  those  bacteria  which  cause  diseases  like  typhoid 
fever,  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  etc. 

Lactic  Acid  Bacteria  —  Beneficial.  These  are  by 
far  the  most  common  of  all  the  bacteria  found  in 


O 
O  Q 


Figure  3 — Varieties  of  lactic  acid  bacteria   (Conn) 

milk.  The  souring  of  milk  and  cream  is  due  to  these 
bacteria.  They  act  upon  the  milk  sugar,  changing 
part  of  it  into  lactic  acid,  which  gives  milk  its  sour 
taste.  When  the  acidity  of  milk  reaches  about  0.9 
per  cent.,  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  are  either  checked 
or  killed  by  the  acid  they  have  produced,  and  the 
formation  of  acid  ceases.  In  ordinary  sour  milk, 
about  half  of  the  milk  sugar  is  left  unchanged. 

Under  cleanly  conditions,  the  lactic  acid  type  of 
bacteria  always  predominates  in  milk.  When,  how- 
ever, milk  is  drawn  under  uncleanly  conditions,  the 
lactic  acid  organisms  are  often  outnumbered  by 


COMMON    MILK    BACTERIA  21 

other  kinds  resulting  in  the  production  of  tainted 
milk. 

The  fine  flavor  of  butter  and  that  of  many  varie- 
ties of  cheese,  is  due  to  the  lactic  acid  bacteria.  The 
tonic  value  of  good  sour  milk  is  also  due  to  these 
bacteria.  In  the  famous  experiments  of  Dr.  Metch- 
inkoff,  it  was  established  that  the  lactic  acid  organ- 
isms exert  favorable  effects  in  the  large  intestine  by 
destroying  and  combatting  obnoxious  kinds  which 
are  always  present  there.  Because  of  their  antag- 
onistic properties,  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  act  as 
a  real  safe-guard  to  milk,  suppressing  undesirable 
kinds  capable  of  producing  bad  flavors,  toxins,  etc. 

Undesirable  Bacteria.  To  this  class  belong  the 
butyric  acid  bacteria,  which  are  the  chief  cause  of 
rancid  butter;  putrefactive  bacteria,  which  decom- 
pose milk  and  cream ;  bitter,  slimy,  gassy,  toxic,  and 
many  other  kinds  of  bacteria  which  need  not  be  dis- 
cussed here. 

Most  of  the  undesirable  bacteria  find  their  way 
into  milk  through  particles  of  dust,  manure,  hair, 
flies,  bits  of  hay,  chaff,  straw,  etc.  A  single  fly  or 
hair  may  carry  half  a  million  bacteria;  and  while 
flies  and  hair  may  be  strained  out  of  milk,  the  bac- 
teria cannot,  because  of  their  extreme  smallness. 

Occasionally  milk  becomes  infected  with  disease 
producing  bacteria.  This  class  of  bacteria  will  be 
discussed  in  another  chapter. 

Spores.  These  are  inactive  bacteria  which  can  re- 
sist high  temperatures  to  a  remarkable  extent,  some 
being  able  to  endure  a  boiling  temperature  for  many 


22          MIIvK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE   HOME) 

minutes.  Under  favorable  conditions,  spores  soon 
develop  into  active  bacteria,  in  which  condition  they 
are  readily  destroyed  by  heat. 

Lactic  acid  bacteria  do  not  produce  spores,  but 
putrefactive  and  other  undesirable  bacteria  do.  In 
heating  milk,  therefore,  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  are 
destroyed  first,  and  the  spores  left  undestroyed  will 
later  grow  and  develop  undesirable  flavors  in  the 
milk.  This  is  the  reason  why  pasteurized  milk  (see 
page  37)  will  usually  develop  putrid  odors  with 
age,  rather  than  sour  as  is  the  case  with  unheated 
milk. 

Numbers  of  Bacteria  in  Milk.  Ordinary  market 
milk  literally  teems  with  bacterial  life,  averaging 
about  half  a  million  bacteria  per  teaspoonful  of  milk. 
Such  large  numbers  are  not  necessarily  harmful  to 
adults  but  they  may  seriously  affect  babies  and 
young  children.  It  is  known  that  the  prevalence  of 
bowel  trouble  among  children  under  two  years  of 
age  is  largely  due  to  the  consumption  of  milk  con- 
taining large  numbers  of  putrefactive  and  allied 
species  of  bacteria. 


CHAPTER  V 
CARE  OF  MILK  IN  THE  HOME 

No  matter  how  good  the  condition  of  the  milk  when 
delivered,  if  carelessly  handled  in  the  home  it  will 
keep  sweet  but  a  very  short  time.  To  keep  milk  and 
cream  sweet  and  pure,  they  must  be  kept  cold  and 
clean.  As  soon  as  the  milk  is  delivered,  it  should  be 
put  in  a  cool  place — a  clean  refrigerator  if  possible. 
The  vessels  in  which  the  milk  and  cream  are  kept 
must  be  sterile  and  covered.  Vessels  are  not  sterile 
unless  they  have  been  kept  in  boiling  water  for  five 
minutes  and  then  inverted  upon  a  clean  shelf  with- 
out wiping. 

Importance  of  Low  Temperature.  Milk  always 
contains  bacteria  no  matter  how  cleanly  the  condi- 
tions under  which  it  is  produced.  At  ordinary  tem- 
peratures these  bacteria  increase  with  marvelous  ra- 
pidity; at  low  temperatures  their  growth  practically 
ceases.  The  effect  of  temperature  on  bacterial  de- 
velopment is  graphically  shown  in  Figure  4: 


Figure  4  — Relation  of  temper- 
ature to  bacterial  growth, 
a,  represents  a  single  bacte- 
rium: b,  its  progeny  in  twenty- 
four  hours  in  milk  kept  at  50° 
F. ;  c,   its  progeny  in  twenty- 
four  hours  in  milk  kept  at  70° 
F.    (Bui.  26,  Storrs,  Conn.) 


24          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 

At  a  temperature  of  50°  F.  the  bacteria  multiplied 
five  times;  at  70°  F.  they  multiplied  seven  hundred 
and  fifty  times. 

Roughly  speaking,  at  98°  F.  bacteria  multiply  at 
least  one  hundred  times  faster  than  at  70°  F.  At 
32°  F.  bacterial  development  practically  ceases. 

Milk  or  cream  may  be  kept  sweet  a  long  time  at 
40°  to  45°  F.  because  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  prac- 
tically stop  growing  at  these  temperatures.  But 
there  are  other  classes  of  bacteria  that  can  grow  at 
these  temperatures  as  evidenced  by  the  production 
of  undesirable  flavors.  Such  flavors  usually  become 
noticeable  after  thirty-six  hours. 

Air  and  Water  Cooling.  Milk  should  always  be 
cooled  to  as  low  a  temperature  as  possible  by  placing 
the  receptacle  containing  it  in  cold  water.  Air 
cooling,  such  as  would  take  place  in  a  refrigerator, 
is  very  much  slower  than  water  cooling  and  for  this 
reason  milk  and  cream  should  always  be  cooled  as 
much  as  possible  with  cold  water  before  placing 
them  in  the  refrigerator. 

The  reason  why  air  cools  so  much  more  slowly 
than  water  at  the  same  temperature  is  the  fact  that 
air  is  a  much  poorer  conductor  of  heat  and  cold  than 
is  water. 

Importance  of  Cleanliness.  Nowhere  does  cleanli- 
ness count  for  so  much  as  in  the  handling  of  milk. 
If  a  refrigerator  is  used,  it  should  have  a  thorough 
cleaning  at  least  once  a  week.  Always  see  to  it  that 
the  milk  is  put  into  clean,  sterile  vessels.  Milk  dishes 
may  look  perfectly  clean  but,  unless  they  have  been 
scalded  or  boiled,  they  may  contain  thousands  of 
bacteria. 


CARE  OF    MILK   IN   THE   HOME  25 

Especially  important  is  it  to  give  close  attention 
to  the  baby's  bottles.  As  soon  as  the  baby  has  fin- 
ished his  meal,  the  bottle  and  nipple  should  be  rinsed 
with  warm  water  (not  hot),  then  washed  in  hot 
water  containing  some  washing  powder,  like  sal  soda, 
and  then  scalded.  Under  no  conditions  should  nip- 
ples be  used  which  are  joined  to  the  feeding  bottle 
by  means  of  a  rubber  tube.  Such  tubes  cannot  be 
thoroughly  cleaned. 

General  Handling  of  Milk.  All  milk  and  cream 
should  be  pasteurized  (see  page  41)  in  the  home, 
even  if  they  have  been  previously  pasteurized  by  the 
dealer.  Modification  of  milk  for  baby  feeding  is 
also  important.  Both  of  these  subjects  are  fully 
treated  in  separate  chapters. 

The  mistake  is  sometimes  made  in  warming  the 
entire  twenty-four  hours'  allowance  of  milk  for  the 
baby  and  then  using  from  this  the  amount  required 
for  a  single  feeding.  Repeatedly  warming  and  cool- 
ing milk  will  quickly  spoil  it.  Only  the  amount  re- 
quired for  immediate  use  should  be  taken  from  the 
main  supply  and  the  latter  should  be  kept  cold  until 
ready  to  use. 

Always  take  milk  into  the  house  as  soon  as  de- 
livered, especially  in  hot  weather.  If  this  cannot  be 
done,  provide  an  insulated  box  into  which  the  milk- 
man may  put  the  bottle. 

On  account  of  their  great  absorbent  properties, 
milk  and  cream  must  be  kept  in  covered  vessels, 

especially  when  placed  in  the  kitchen  or  cellar,  or 
possibly  in  the  refrigerator  with  fruits  and  vege- 


26          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE)    HOME) 

tables.  Aside  from  absorbing  odors  when  exposed 
in  these  places,  they  will  also  take  up  bacteria  which 
will  shorten  their  keeping  quality. 

Pour  milk  from  one  vessel  to  another  as  little  as 
possible  to  avoid  contamination ;  and  do  not  add  new 
milk  to  old  milk ;  neither  add  warm  milk  to  cold. 

The  tops  of  the  bottles  should  always  be  washed 
before  removing  any  milk.  They  are  more  or  less 
contaminated  with  dust  during  transportation  and 
also  become  soiled  from  the  hands. 

Always  clean  the  bottles  before  returning  them. 


CHAPTER  VI 
MARKET  CLASSES  OF  MILK 

In  most  country  towns  and  villages  only  one  grade 
of  milk  is  sold.  This  is  ordinary,  raw  milk  contain- 
ing from  3  to  5  per  cent,  butterfat. 

In  the  larger  cities,  in  addition  to  ordinary  milk, 
other  classes  are  sold  such  as  certified,  modified, 
evaporated,  condensed,  guaranteed,  sanitary,  pas- 
teurized, inspected,  grades  A,  B  and  C,  and  dip  or 
bulk  milk. 

Certified  Milk.  Certified  milk  is  the  highest  grade 
of  market  milk  and  is  produced  under  conditions  im- 


Figure  5 — Sanitary  Dairy  Barn 
27 


28         MILK   AND    MILK   PRODUCTS    IN    THE;    HOME: 

posed  by  medical  milk  commissions,  which  usually 
employ  a  veterinarian,  a  bacteriologist  and  a  chemist 
to  look  after  the  production  of  the  milk.  It  must 
come  from  healthy  cows,  be  free  from  disease  germs 
and  preservatives,  must  have  a  known  chemical  com- 
position, and  must  be  so  produced  and  handled  as 
to  insure  a  minimum  number  of  bacteria.  If  the  pro- 
ducer has  complied  with  all  the  requirements,  he  is 
furnished  a  certificate  by  the  commission  which  per- 
mits him  to  use  the  "certified"  label  on  his  products. 
The  cows,  milkers  and  premises  are  regularly  in- 
spected, and  the  milk  is  regularly  subjected  to  chem- 
ical and  bacteriological  tests.  The  number  of  bac- 
teria permitted  by  different  commissions  varies  from 
10,000  to  30,000  per  cubic  centimeter*  of  milk ;  and 
the  butterfat  content  ranges  from  about  3.5  to  4.5  per 
cent. 

The  milk  bottles  are  sealed  and  bear  the  date  of 
bottling  and  the  name  of  the  commission.  Delivery 
should  be  made  within  twenty-four  hours  after  the 
milk  is  drawn  and  its  temperature  during  this  time 
should  not  exceed  45°  F. 

The  term  "certified  milk'  is  registered  in  the 
United  States  patent  office  and  its  use  is  legally  per- 
mitted only  on  milk  approved  by  medical  milk  com- 
missions. 

Certified  milk  is  now  largely  used  for  infants  and 
invalids.  There  is,  however,  also  a  rapidly  increas- 
ing use  made  of  this  milk  by  the  better  informed 
people  who  are  not  satisfied  with  the  condition  of 
average  market  milk. 

*A  cubic  centimeter  (C.  C.)  is  equal  to  about  25  drops. 


MARKET    CLASSES   OF    MILK 

Modified  Milk.    See  page  44. 

Evaporated  Milk.    See  page  54. 

Condensed  Milk.    See  page  53. 

Guaranteed  Milk.  This  is  milk  which  is  guaran- 
teed by  the  retailer  to  come  up  to  certain  require- 
ments, which  vary  in  different  localities.  As  a  rule 
it  contains  a  certain  minimum  of  butterfat  such  as  4 
per  cent,  or  5  per  cent.  To  this  may  be  added  a 
guarantee  that  the  milk  is  from  non-tubercular  cows. 

Sanitary  Milk.  Milk  of  this  class  is  guaranteed  as 
to  certain  high  class  sanitary  conditions  under  which 
it  is  produced  and  handled. 

Pasteurized  Milk.    See  page  37. 

Inspected  Milk.  This  class  of  milk  as  a  rule  is 
produced  under  conditions  requiring  a  high  degree 
of  cleanliness  and  cows  which  the  tuberculin  test  has 
shown  to  be  free  from  tuberculosis.  These  condi- 
tions are  certified  to  by  responsible  inspectors. 

Grades  A,  B  and  C  Milk.  In  New  York  state  milk 
is  graded  according  to  its  sanitary  condition,  the 
score  card  used  being  that  shown  on  pages  97  and 
98.  Grade  A  requires  a  minimum  score  of  75,  grade 
B  60,  and  grade  C  40. 

Bulk  or  Dip  Milk.  The  old  method  of  hauling 
milk  to  the  city  in  five,  eight  or  ten  gallon  cans  and 
removing  each  customer's  allowance  by  means  of  a 
dipper  or  faucet,  has  been  found  so  objectionable 
that  the  practice  has  been  largely  abandoned.  The 
principal  objections  to  this  method  are:  (1)  The  ad- 
mission of  dust  and  bacteria  to  the  milk  while  meas- 
uring it;  (2)  the  use  of  unsterilized  milk  vessels  by 
consumers;  (3)  exposure  of  the  vessels  to  dust  while 


MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE 


on  the  steps  of  the  consumer ;  (4)  the  use  of  unclean 
vessels  by  milkmen  in  measuring  each  customer's 
share  ;  (5)  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  milk,  especially 
if  removed  from  the  cans  by  means  of  a  faucet,  in 
which  case  the  first  drawn  milk  is  likely  to  be  low- 
est in  fat  content;  and  (6)  the  possibility  of  drivers 
tampering  with  the  milk. 

JUDGING  MILK  AND  CREAM 

In  judging  milk  and  cream  a  score  card  like  the 
following  is  generally  used : 


Item 

Perfect 
Score 

Score 
Allowed 

Remarks 

Bacteria  

35 

Bacteria  found  per  1 
cubic  centimeter  ) 

OK 

i  Flavor  

r  lavor  ana.  odor 

ZO 

Odor     

Visible  dirt  

10 

Butterfat  

10 

Per  cent,  found  

Solids  not  fat  

10 

Per  cent  .  found  

A  cidity   

5 

Per  cent,   found  

Bottle  and  cap.. 

5 

I  Cap  . 

(  Bottle  

Total  

100 

EXPLANATION  OF  SCORE  CARD 
Bacteria.  The  maximum  number  of  bacteria  per- 
missible per  cubic  centimeter  for  a  perfect  score  on 
bacteria  as  a  rule  is  400.  Numbers  beyond  this  point 
will  detract  from  the  score  until  200,000  is  reached 
when  the  score  is  zero.  Deductions  from  the  perfect 
score  are  made  uniform,  being  proportional  to  the 
bacteria  count  between  400  and  200,000. 


MARKET    CLASSES   OF    MILK  3! 

A  bacteria  count  as  low  as  400  per  c.c.  is  possible, 
though  difficult  to  attain.  By  exercising  proper 
cleanliness  and  thoroughly  cooling  milk,  the  major- 
ity of  dairymen  can  keep  the  bacteria  count  below 
10;000  per  c.c.  A  low  bacteria  count  is  largely  a 
matter  of  cleanliness  and  low  temperature. 

Flavor  and  Odor.  Flavor  refers  to  taste  and  odor 
to  the  aroma  detectable  by  the  nose.  It  is  impossible 
to  describe  a  perfect  flavor  and  odor.  Anything  in 
the  least  objectionable  to  the  taste  or  smell  will 
detract  from  the  score.  Under  this  head,  weedy, 
stable,  manure,  bitter,  rancid  and  unclean  flavors  or 
odors  are  most  common.  To  obtain  a  perfect  score 
for  flavor  and  odor,  perfect  cleanliness  must  prevail, 
the  milk  must  be  kept  free  from  odoriferous  sur- 
roundings, and  feeding  must  be  done  after  milking, 
especially  when  silage  or  other  odoriferous  feeds  are 
fed. 

Visible  Dirt.  Any  sediment,  however  slight,  in  the 
bottom  of  the  bottle  will  detract  from  the  score.  Most 
milk  will  show  visible  dirt  if  produced  under  un- 
cleanly conditions.  Dust,  particles  of  dirt,  hair  or 
particles  of  litter,  and  sometimes  all  of  these,  are 
noticeable  in  the  bottom  of  bottled  milk. 

The  greatest  factor  in  reducing  dirt  to  a  minimum 
is  washing  the  cow's  flanks  and  udder  just  previous 
to  milking.  The  moist  condition  prevents  the  dis- 
lodgement  of  dirt.  Another  great  aid  in  obtaining 
clean  milk  is  the  covered  milk  pail. 

Butterfat.  To  obtain  a  perfect  score  on  butterfat, 
milk  as  a  rule  must  contain  not  less  than  4.0  per 


32          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 

cent.  For  each  tenth  below  4.0  per  cent.,  0.2  point  is 
deducted  from  the  perfect  score  till  3.5  per  cent,  is 
reached.  A  whole  point  is  deducted  for  every  tenth 
below  3.5  per  cent.  Milk  with  a  butterfat  content 
less  than  2.7  per  cent,  or  less  than  the  legal  local 
limit,  is  scored  zero  for  butterfat. 

Cream  is  usually  scored  perfect  for  butterfat  when 
its  fat  content  is  20  per  cent,  or  above. 

Solids  Not  Fat.  Usually  8.7  per  cent,  or  more  is 
required  for  a  perfect  score  on  solids  not  fat.  For 
each  tenth  per  cent,  below  8.7  one  point  is  deducted. 
Milk  containing  less  than  7.8  per  cent,  or  less  than 
the  legal  limit,  is  scored  zero  for  solids  not  fat. 

Solids  not  fat  are  not  considered  in  cream. 

Acidity.  The  limit  of  acidity  for  a  perfect  score 
is  0.2  per  cent.  When  milk  is  thoroughly  cooled 
there  is  little  difficulty  in  keeping  the  acidity  below 
this  limit. 

Bottle  and  Cap.  The  following  defects  detract 
from  the  perfect  score  for  bottle  and  cap :  Partially 
filled  bottle,  tinted  glass,  leaky  caps,  improperly 
paraffined  caps,  unprotected  caps  and  anything  that 
in  any  way  detracts  from  the  appearance  of  the 
package. 


CHAPTER  VII 
MILK-BORNE  DISEASE  BACTERIA 

Every  consumer  of  milk  should  know  that  milk 
is  frequently  a  carrier  of  bacteria  which  belong  to 
the  strictly  disease-producing  kind.  Eecords  show 
that  numerous  epidemics  of  typhoid  fever,  diph- 
theria, septic  sore  throat  trouble  and  scarlet  fever, 
have  been  caused  by  infected  milk  supplies.  Per- 
haps one  of  the  most  menacing  of  all  milk-borne 
disease  bacteria  is  the  tubercle  bacillus. 

Fortunately  in  recent  years  great  efforts  have 
been  made  to  safeguard  milk  supplies  against  these 
destructive  disease-producing  bacteria,  and  much 
has  been  accomplished  in  this  direction.  It  is  com- 
forting to  know  also  that  every  consumer  can  make 
his  milk  supply  absolutely  safe  against  any  disease 
bacteria  by  treating  the  milk  as  recommended  in 
the  next  chapter  on  Pasteurization  of  Milk  and 
Cream. 


Figure  6 — Tuberculosis  bacilli   (Lehmann  &  Neumann) 

33 


34         MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS   IN   THE   HOME 


Tuberculosis.  It  is  well  known  that  one  of  the 
most  common  disease  bacteria  found  in  raw  milk  is 
the  bovine  (cow)  tubercle  bacillus.  Examination  of 
milk  supplies  throughout  the  country  reveal  the 
presence  of  this  bacillus  in  milk  to  an  alarming  ex- 
tent. Frequently  as  many  as  10  to  15  per  cent,  of 
the  samples  of  milk  examined  show  the  presence  of 
the  tubercle  organism.  Indeed  the  prevalence  of 
tuberculosis  among  cattle  makes  it  positively  unsafe 
to  assume  that  the  milk  of  any  herd  of  cows  is  free 
from  tubercle  bacilli,  unless  the  cows  have  been 
actually  shown  to  be  free  from  this  disease  by  the 
tuberculin  test. 

The  question  naturally  arises:  To  what  extent 
can  tubercle  bacilli  from  cows  cause  tuberculosis  in 
man  ?  The  answer  is  graphically  set  forth  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  which  presents  the  results  of  an  ex- 

TABLE   SHOWING  PROPORTION   OF   TUBERCULOSIS   OF   HUMAN 
AND    BOVINE    ORIGIN    IN    PATIENTS    EXAMINED 


Adults  16  Years 

Children  5  to  16 

Children  Under 

Diagnosis 

and  Over 

Years. 

5  Years. 

Human 

Bovine 

Human 

Bovine 

Human 

Bovine 

Pulmonary  tuberculosis 

778 

3 

14 

— 

35 

1 

Tuberculous    adenitis. 

36 
16 

1 
4 

36 

8 

22 
9 

15 
10 

24 
14 

Abdominal  tuberculosis 

Generalized    tuberculo- 
sis, alimentary  origin 

6 

1 

3 

4 

17 

15 

Generalized  tuberculosis 

29 

— 

5 

1 

74 

7 

Generalized  tuberculosis 
including      meninges 
alimentary  origin 

1 

5 

10 

Generalized  tuberculosis 
including  meninges  •  •  • 

5 

— 

10 

— 

76 

1 

Tuberbular  meningitis.  • 

1 

— 

3 

— 

28 

4 

Tuberculosis  of  bones 
and  joints  

32 

10 

1 
3 

41 
4 

3 
6 

27 
2 

^^ 

Tuberculosis  of  skin  — 

MILK-BORNE;  DISEASE  BACTERIA  35 

haustive  study  of  the  subject  by  Park  and  Krum- 
weide  and  numerous  foreign  investigators.  The 
table  was  prepared  by  Park  and  Krumweide  of  New 
York  City.  It  not  only  shows  different  forms  of 
tuberculosis  in  man,  but  also  compares  the  number 
of  cases  due  to  human  and  bovine  tubercle  bacilli. 

The  table  shows  that  children  are  especially  liable 
to  infection  with  bovine  tubercle  bacilli.  It  is  re- 
ported that  of  the  total  number  of  deaths  of  young 
children  from  tuberculosis,  about  10  per  cent,  are 
from  bovine  infection. 

Epidemics  Caused  by  Infected  Milk.  Over  five 
hundred  epidemics  of  common  diseases  caused  by 
infected  milk  supplies  are  on  record.  The  milk  sup- 


Figure  7 — Typhoid  bacilli   (Lehmann  &  Neumann) 

ply  becomes  infected  with  the  disease  germs  of  some 
person  suffering  from  the  disease.  The  infection  may 
take  place  in  many  different  ways  which  it  is  not 
necessary  to  discuss  here.  Typhoid  infection  is 
sometimes  caused  by  persons  known  as  "  typhoid 
carriers/  who  are  not  actually  sick  but  heavily  in- 
fected with  the  disease  bacteria.  In  the  following 


MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 


list  of  epidemics  all  infection  is  of  human  origin 
excepting  septic  sore  throat  trouble,  which  is  now 
believed  to  be  caused  not  only  by  milk  infected  with 
bacteria  from  human  beings  but  also  by  cows  suffer- 
ing from  diseased  udders. 

Septic  Sore  Throat.     Dr.  C.  E.  North   reports  the  following 
epidemics : 

Boston,  1,043  cases  caused  by  one  raw  milk  supply 

Boston,  227 

/-««_•  in    nnn  "  "  "  "  "  "  " 

Chicago,  10,000 

Baltimore,  602 
Cortland- 

Homer,  669 

Typhoid  Fever.     Trask  reports  317  outbreaks  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing are  typical  cases : 

Glasgow,  500  cases  caused  by  one  raw  milk  supply 

Cologne,  270 

Port  Jervis,  59 

Springfield,  182 

Oakland,  262 

Montclair,  107 

Stamford,  307 


Scarlet  Fever.     Trask  reports  125  epidemics  of  which  a  few 
are  given  below: 

Buffalo,  57  cases  caused  by  one  raw  milk  supply 

Washington,  33 

London,  284 

Beverly,  6 

Liverpool,  59 

Mt.  Vernon,  45 

Boston,  195 


Diphtheria.  Trask  reports  51  outbreaks,  a  few  of  which  are 
as  follows: 

Brookline,  12  cases  caused  by  one  raw  m  Ik  supply 

Los  Angeles,  35 

Wellsville,  84 

Clifton,  36 

Hyde  Park,  69 

Warwick,  64 

The  difficulty  of  keeping  disease-producing  bac- 
teria out  of  milk  is  so  great  that  occasionally  even 
certified  milk  becomes  infected  with  these  organisms. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
PASTEURIZATION  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM 

Ideal  pasteurization  consists  in  heating  milk  to 
145°  F.  and  keeping  it  at  this  temperature  for  30 
minutes,  after  which  it  is  quickly  cooled  to  50°  F.  or 
below.  This  treatment  will  kill  all  of  the  strictly 
disease  producing  bacteria  as  well  as  most  of  the 
common  bacteria  usually  found  in  milk;  in  other 
words,  pasteurization  means  killing  bacteria. 

Necessity  for  Pasteurizing  Milk.  On  an  average 
every  drop  of  ordinary  milk  contains  about  20,000 
bacteria.  Some  of  these  bacteria  belong  to  the  kind 
that  irritate  the  intestines  of  babies  and  children, 
causing  various  forms  of  bowel  trouble.  No  milk 
is  entirely  free  from  this  class  of  bacteria,  but  the 
more  cleanly  the  conditions  under  which  the  milk 
has  been  produced  and  handled  the  smaller  the 
number  of  bad  bacteria  it  will  contain. 

In  New  York  City  during  1912,  3,392  babies  under 
one  year  of  age  died  from  bowel  trouble;  nine  out 
of  every  ten  of  these  were  bottle  fed.  Other  cities 
show  similar  records.  It  is  the  putrefactive  and 
other  filth  bacteria  contained  in  milk  that  are  re- 
sponsible for  the  prevalence  of  bowel  trouble  and 
the  high  mortality  among  bottle  fed  babies  and 
young  children. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  the  large  cities  about  one- 
half  of  the  deaths  of  infants  under  one  year  of  age 
result  from  bowel  troubles  and  that  four-fifths  of 
these  have  been  bottle-fed. 

37 


38          MILK   AND    MII.K   PRODUCTS    IN    THE   HOME) 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  the  sum- 
mer following  the  weaning  of  breast-fed  babies,  is 
usually  one  of  more  or  less  danger  to  the  child. 
Many  mothers  expect  "summer  complaint'  at  this 
time  as  a  perfectly  natural  thing,  little  realizing  that 
bowel  trouble  is  commonly  due  to  the  irritating 
effect  of  bacteria  contained  in  the  child's  milk. 

The  frequent  presence  in  milk  of  infectious  dis- 
ease bacteria  as  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
furnishes  additional  reasons  for  pasteurizing  milk. 
These  bacteria  are  especially  to  be  feared  because 
they  not  only  affect  babies  and  children  but  are 
equally  dangerous  to  grown  people.  So  difficult  is  it 
to  safeguard  milk  completely  against  these  deadly 
organisms  that  even  certified  milk,  in  several  in- 
stances, has  been  known  to  contain  them. 

Since  all  serious  danger  from  bacteria  is  removed 
by  the  pasteurizing  process,  it  certainly  seems  noth- 
ing less  than  folly  not  to  pasteurize  milk,  especially 
that  produced  and  handled  under  prevailing  condi- 
tions. 

What  has  been  said  here  in  reference  to  the  need 
of  pasteurizing  milk  applies  with  equal  force  to 
cream. 

Pasteurization  by  Milk  Dealers.  To  eliminate  as 
far  as  possible  the  danger  of  disease  resulting  from 
the  consumption  of  raw  milk,  great  efforts  have  been 
made  in  recent  years  by  public  health  officials  to 
have  milk  pasteurized  before  it  is  delivered  to  the 
consumer.  In  a  number  of  large  cities  pasteurization 
of  the  ordinary  grades  of  milk  has  been  made  com- 


PASTEURIZATION    OF    MILK    AND   CREAM  39 

pulsory.  Very  notable  improvement  has  followed 
this  practice.  In  New  York  City,  for  example,  where 
an  average  of  17,000  babies  were  fed  daily  on  pas- 
teurized milk  during  a  period  of  three  years,  the 
death  rate  per  1,000  births  decreased  from  125  to  94. 

Similar  results  have  been  secured  in  many  other 
places.  Perhaps  the  most  significant  results  follow- 
ing the  pasteurization  of  milk  are  those  secured  at 
the  Infant  Asylum  at  Randall's  Island,  New  York 
City.  The  death  rate  among  the  babies  in  this  insti- 
tution during  1895  to  1897  inclusive  averaged  from 
39  to  44  per  cent.  At  this  time  Mr.  Straus  secured 
the  establishment  of  a  complete  pasteurizing  plant 
on  the  island  and  the  first  year  following  the  pas- 
teurization of  the  milk  the  death  rate  dropped  to 
less  than  20  per  cent.,  or  less  than  half  what  it  was 
before  the  milk  was  pasteurized. 

Advantages  of  Pasteurizing  in  the  Home.  Unfor- 
tunately much  milk  has  been  poorly  pasteurized  in 
the  past,  and  there  is  undoubtedly  much  inefficiently 
pasteurized  milk  sold  at  the  present  time.  It  occa- 
sionally happens,  too,  that  efficiently  pasteurized 
milk  is  put  into  unsterilized  bottles,  which  destroys 
the  value  of  the  pasteurizing  process.  Milk  may  also 
become  infected  in  the  interval  between  pasteurizing 
and  bottling.  An  instance  is  cited  by  Dr.  C.  E. 
North  in  which  85  cases  of  typhoid  fever  were  traced 
to  milk  which  had  become  infected  through  a 
11  typhoid  carrier'  whose  business  it  was  to  cap  the 
bottles. 

Another  instance  is  on  record  where  a  driver, 
convalescing  from  scarlet  fever,  left  a  trail  of  the 
disease  along  his  route.  The  driver  had  a  running 


40          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS   IN    THE   HOME 

sore  on  his  finger  and  in  taking  hold  of  the  tops  of 
the  bottles  infected  them  with  the  disease  germs. 

It  is  largely  for  these  reasons  that  the  author  for 
years  has  recommended  pasteurizing  the  milk  in  the 
home.  Moreover,  when  the  milk  is  pasteurized  in 
the  home,  there  are  advantages  in  buying  raw  rather 
than  pasteurized  milk.  Under  ordinary  conditions, 
for  example,  raw  milk  will  not  keep  long,  and  for 
this  reason  must  be  sold  shortly  after  it  is  produced. 
Pasteurized  milk,  on  the  other  hand,  is  often  sold 
when  several  days  old.  In  this  connection  it  is  to 
be  remembered  that  old  pasteurized  milk,  especially 
when  kept  at  rather  high  temperatures,  may  be  dan- 
gerous to  babies  and  young  children.  Under  such 
conditions  the  bacterial  spores,  which  are  not  de- 
stroyed by  the  pasteurizing  process,  develop  into 
enormous  numbers  and  may  cause  very  serious  bowel 
disturbances.  For  this  reason  when  pasteurized  milk 
is  purchased,  it  is  desirable  to  repasteurize  it  in  the 
home.  Another  advantage  in  buying  raw  milk  is  the 
fact  that  the  conditions  under  which  milk  has  been 


Figure  8— Double  boiler   (Cooker) 


PASTEURIZATION    OF    MILK   AND    CREAM  4! 

produced  can  always  be  told  better  in  raw  than  in 
pasteurized  milk. 

Home  Process  of  Pasteurization.  A  common 
two-quart  double  boiler,  like  that  shown  in  Figure  8, 
furnishes  the  best  means  of  pasteurizing  milk  and 
cream  in  the  home.  Put  a  few  inches  of  water  in 
the  outer  vessel  ;  then  rinse  the  inner  one  with  boil- 
ing water  and  pour  the  quart  of  milk  into  it.  Now 
heat  the  milk  to  145°  F.  and  keep  it  at  this  tempera- 


E 


Figure  9 — Dairy   thermometer 

ture  for  thirty  minutes  using  a  dairy  thermometer  to 
note  the  temperature. 

The  thermometer  should  not  be  removed  from  the 
milk  until  the  heating  is  completed.  It  is  also  neces- 
sary to  stir  the  milk  frequently  during  the  heating 
to  prevent  a  "skin'  forming  at  the  surface.  If  a 
spoon  is  used  to  stir  the  milk,  this  should  also  be 
kept  in  the  milk  until  the  pasteurizing  is  completed. 

As  soon  as  the  heating  is  finished,  the  milk  should 
be  promptly  cooled  to  as  near  45°  F.  as  possible. 
The  lower  the  temperature  the  better  the  milk  will 
keep.  During  the  cooling  the  milk  is  kept  in  the 
same  vessel  in  which  it  was  heated.  By  changing 
the  water  several  times  in  the  outer  vessel  the  tem- 
perature of  the  milk  is  quickly  reduced.  After  cool- 
ing, the  milk  may  be  put  into  sterilized  bottles  or  it 
may  be  kept  in  the  boiler,  care  being  taken  to  keep 
the  receptacles  well  covered. 

The  reason  why  milk  should  be  kept  near  145°  F. 
during  pasteurization  is  the  fact  that,  at  tempera- 


42          MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 

tures  somewhat  lower  than  this,  the  bacteria  will  not 
be  destroyed,  while  at  higher  temperatures  undesir- 
able changes  take  place  in  the  milk.  An  exposure 
of  a  few  minutes  at  165°  F.  will  affect  the  taste  of 
milk,  begin  to  curdle  the  albumen,  and  will  also 
affect  the  enzymes  present  in  milk.  It  is  important, 
therefore,  that  milk  intended  for  baby  feeding  be 
kept  at  145°  F.  as  closely  as  possible  during  the 
pasteurizing  process. 

Milk  intended  for  adults  need  not  be  watched  so 
carefully,  and  no  particular  harm  will  result  from 
heating  such  milk  to  165°  F.  The  changes  taking 
place  at  this  temperature,  however,  would  impair  its 
digestibility  too  much  for  baby  feeding. 

In  pasteurizing  milk,  the  higher  the  temperature 
the  shorter  the  time  required  to  kill  the  bacteria. 
Thus,  a  temperature  of  160°  F.  maintained  for  ten 
minutes  will  prove  quite  as  effective  in  destroying 
bacteria  as  145°  maintained  for  thirty  minutes. 

There  are  other  methods  employed  in  pasteurizing 
milk  in  the  home  such  as  pasteurizing  in  the  original 
bottle  or  transferring  the  milk  to  smaller  bottles 
for  baby  feeding ;  and  good  results  may  be  obtained 
with  these  methods.  However,  the  author's  experi- 
ence in  pasteurizing  milk  in  the  home  during  the 
last  fifteen  years  has  convinced  him  that  for  the 
average  family  the  double  boiler  will  give  the  best 
results. 

Inefficient  Pasteurization.  Milk  that  has  been  un- 
derheated  is  more  dangerous  than  that  which  has 
not  been  heated  at  all.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 


PASTEURIZATION    OF   MILK   AND   CREAM  43 

inadequate  heat  in  pasteurizing  may  destroy  the 
lactic  acid  bacteria  (which  are  easily  killed)  and  by 
so  doing  actually  better  the  conditions  for  the 
growth  of  the  more  resistant  and  obnoxious  kinds. 
Lactic  acid  organisms  are  antagonistic  to  other 
classes  of  bacteria  and  are  therefore  a  real  safe- 
guard to  milk.  This  makes  it  plain  that  unless  milk 
is  pasteurized  at  a  temperature  which  will  destroy 
the  pathogenic  and  non-acid  bacteria  as  well  as  the 
acid  bacteria,  it  is  far  better  not  to  heat  it  at  all. 

Digestibility  of  Pasteurized  Milk.  The  success 
which  has  attended  the  feeding  of  pasteurized  milk 
to  thousands  of  babies  is  convincing  proof  that  the 
digestibility  of  milk  is  not  impaired  by  the  pasteur- 
izing process. 

The  remarkable  results  obtained  by  Straus  in 
his  charitable  dispensations  of  pasteurized  milk  to 
thousands  of  babies  in  New  York  City  early  proved 
the  high  value  of  this  class  of  milk.  Later  in  the 
City  of  New  York  where,  during  three  years,  an 
average  of  17,000  babies  were  daily  fed  on  pasteur- 
ized milk,  the  digestibility  and  food  value  were 
found  equal  to  those  of  raw  milk.  In  all  this  work 
no  trouble  from  rickets  or  scurvy  was  encountered. 

It  is  more  than  probable  that  the  earlier  objec- 
tions to  pasteurized  milk  for  baby  feeding  were 
due  to  faulty  methods  of  pasteurization.  It  is  gen- 
erally admitted,  however,  that  for  some  babies  pas- 
teurized milk  is  slightly  more  constipating  than  raw 
milk.  This  objection  is  insignificant  when  compared 
with  the  advantages  gained  by  the  pasteurizing 
process. 


CHAPTER  IX 
•      MODIFIED  MILK 

Modified  milk  is  cow's  milk  whose  composition 
has  been  changed  to  approximate  that  of  breast 
milk.  It  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  breast  milk  in 
feeding  infants  and  babies  who,  for  one  reason  or 
another,  have  been  deprived  of  their  mother's  milk. 
That  there  is  need  of  modifying  cow's  milk  for 
baby  feeding  will  be  conceded  when  the  differences 
between  it  and  breast  milk  are  fully  understood. 

Breast  and  Cow's  Milk  Compared.  The  average 
composition  of  breast  and  cow's  milk  is  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


Water 

Butter- 
fat 

Casein 

Albu- 
men 

Milk 
Sugar 

Ash 

Cow's   milk.  . 

87.2 

3.8 

2.8 

0.6 

4.9 

0.7 

Breast  milk  . 

88.2 

3.4 

0.6 

0.5 

7.1 

0.2 

The  chief  difference  between  the  two  milks,  it  will 
be  noted,  is  in  the  casein  content,  which  is  nearly 
five  times  as  great  in  cow's  milk  as  in  breast  milk. 
Furthermore,  the  casein  of  cow's  milk  has  an  acid 
reaction  while  that  of  breast  milk  is  practically 
neutral.  The  acid  condition  of  the  casein,  together 
with  the  lactic  acid  present  in  cow's  milk,  causes  the 
latter  to  clot  when  taken  into  the  stomach.  The 
clotting  of  milk  has  little  significance  with  adults 
or  children  with  strong  digestion,  but  there  are 


44 


MODIFIED    MILK  45 

thousands  of  babies  who  cannot  digest  these  clots 
and  hence  suffer  from  colic  and  other  discomforts. 

To  adapt  cow's  milk  to  baby  feeding,  therefore, 
requires  that  it  be  changed,  not  only  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  clots  in  the  stomach  but  also  to  rid 
it  of  the  excess  of  casein  which  causes  an  unneces- 
sary tax  upon  the  digestive  system.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  diluting  milk  with  wrater. 


Figure    10 — Apparatus   and   materials   used   in    modifying   milk.     Left 

to  right  is  quart  of  milk,  cream  clipper,  pint  of  milk,  viscogen, 

milk  sugar,  oat  water,  thermometer  and  double  boiler 


Amount  of  Water  to  Add.  The  amount  of  water 
to  be  added  to  milk  must  be  gauged  largely  by  the 
total  proteids  in  milk,  which  are  about  three  times 
greater  in  cow's  than  in  breast  milk.  It  must  also 
partly  be  determined  by  the  age  of  the  child. 

Infants  and  children,  like  young  animals,  require 
changed  rations  with  advancing  age.  Thus  in  some 
of  the  laboratories  where  milk  is  modified  on  a 
large  scale,  the  percentages  vary  as  follows: 


46 


MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 


Age  of  Child 

Butterfat 

Sugar 

Protein 

One  week  

Per  Cent. 
2.00 

Per  Cent. 

4.50 

Per  Cent. 
0.75 

Four  weeks  

3.00 

6.00 

1.00 

Seven  weeks   

3.50 

6.50 

1.25 

Fourteen  weeks   

3.50 

6.50 

1.25 

Twenty  weeks  

3.75 

6.50 

1.50 

Thirtv  weeks 

4.00 

6.50 

1.75 

• 

"Where  naturally  rich  milk  is  used  or  milk  that 
has  been  enriched  by  the  addition  of  cream,  one  part 
of  milk  to  two  and  a  half  to  three  parts  of  water 
is  about  right  for  infants  under  one  week  old.  After 
this  the  water  is  gradually  reduced  so  that  at  the 
end  of  the  sixth  week  water  and  milk  are  used  in 
practically  equal  proportions.  Beginning  with  the 
twentieth  week,  one  part  of  water  to  two  of  milk 
will  be  about  right.  At  the  age  of  one  year  the 
child  may  be  given  plain,  unchanged  cow's  milk. 

Adding  Milk  Sugar.  Cow's  milk  is  naturally  de- 
ficient in  milk  sugar  when  used  for  baby  feeding. 
This  deficiency  is  materially  increased  by  the  water 
added  to  reduce  the  proteids.  Hence  the  necessity 
of  adding  commercial  milk  sugar  (lactose).  Under 
normal  conditions  about  an  ounce  must  be  added 
daily  to  the  child's  ration. 

Milk  sugar  is  preferable  to  ordinary  (cane)  sugar 
because  it  is  more  digestible.  In  case  of  severe  con- 
stipation, maltose  (malt  sugar)  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  place  of  milk  sugar  because  it  is  more 
laxative. 


MODIFIED    MILK  47 

Reducing  Acidity.  Fresh  cow's  milk  shows  an 
acidity  of  about  0.14  per  cent.;  this  amount  is  us- 
ually increased  to  almost  0.2  per  cent,  by  the  time 
it  reaches  the  consumer.  Breast  milk  is  practically 
neutral,  that  is,  shows  no  acidity. 

To  reduce  the  acidity  of  cow's  milk,  lime  water  is 
added.  This  is  best  used  in  the  form  of  viscogen, 
which  is  sucrate  of  lime  (see  page  67).  One  table- 
spoonful  of  viscogen  to  a  quart  of  modified  milk  is 
usually  sufficient.  This  amount  is  equivalent  to 
about  ten  tablespoonfuls  of  ordinary  (U.  S.  P.)  lime 
water  such  as  is  commonly  bought  in  drug  stores. 

Viscogen  is  recommended  here  because  of  its 
cheapness.  Its  cost  is  less  than  one-twentieth  that 
of  commercial  lime  water.  Viscogen  cannot  be 
bought  but  must  be  prepared  in  the  home  as  directed 
on  page  67. 

Oatmeal  Water.  After  the  child  is  a  month  old  it 
will  be  found  advantageous  to  use  oatmeal  water  in 
place  of  plain  water  for  diluting  the  milk.  The  oat- 
meal water  is  prepared  by  adding  a  tablespoonful 
of  rolled  oats  to  a  pint  of  water  and  boiling  the 
mixture  for  at  least  thirty  minutes.  Then  strain 
through  several  thicknesses  of  cheese  cloth. 

The  use  of  oatmeal  water  in  place  of  plain  water 
in  diluting  milk  is  especially  recommended  for 
babies  troubled  with  constipation.  It  is  laxative  and 
also  contributes  valuable  food  material.  The 
strength  of  the  oatmeal  water  may  be  doubled  after 
the  child  is  four  or  five  months  old. 

Barley  flour  and  similar  materials  are  often  used 
in  place  of  rolled  oats,  but  these  are  too  expensive 


48 


MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 


for  the  average  home  and  have,  in  most  cases,  no 
particular  advantage  over  oatmeal  water  for  nor- 
mal babies. 

Adding  Cream.  Where  average  market  milk  is 
used,  a  small  amount  of  cream  is  necessary  in  modi- 
fying milk.  An  extra  pint  of  milk  is  generally  pur- 
chased from  which  to  obtain  this  cream.  The  milk 
is  allowed  to  stand  undisturbed  for  at  least  an  hour 
and  then  about  two  ounces  of  cream  are  removed  by 
means  of  a  conical  dipper  like  that  shown  in  Figure 
10.  This  amount  of  cream  supplies  the  deficiency  in 
butterfat. 

• 

Summary.  The  following  table  presents  a  sum- 
mary of  approximate  proportions  of  materials  used 
in  modifying  milk  for  babies  at  different  ages : 

Table  showing  daily  allowance  of  Feed  at  Different  Ages 


Cream 

Viscogen 

AGE  or  BABY 

Average 
Market 
Milk 

from  Top 
of  Extra 
Pint  of 

Water 

Oatmeal 
Water 

(Home- 
made 
L  i  m  e- 

Milk 
Sugar 

Milk 

water) 

Ounces 

Ounces 

Ounces 

Ounces 

Ounces 

Ounces 

First  Week 

4 

1 

12 

"    ^ 

1 

Second  Week  — 

5 

10 

s 

1 

Third  Week  ... 

7 

l| 

10 

f  f 

I 

1 

Fourth  Week  

8 

2 

10 

\ 

1 

Second  Month  .  . 

10 

2 

12 

^ 

1 

Third  Month  .... 

12 

2 

12 

| 

1 

Fourth  Month  .  . 

16 

2 

12 

* 

I 

Fifth  Month  ... 

18 

2 

12 

* 

1 

Sixth  Month  .... 

20 

2 

10 

1 

1 

Seventh  Month.. 

22 

2 

10 

J 

1 

Eighth  Month  .. 

24 

2 

8 

\ 

1 

Ninth  Month  

26 

1 

8 

^ 

1 

Tenth  Month.... 

28 

1 

5 

£ 

f 

Eleventh  Month 

30 

1 

5 

i 

| 

Twelfth  Month.. 

32 

.  . 

.  . 

MODIFIED   MILK  49 

In  case  common  drug  store  lime  water  is  used  in 
place  of  viscogen,  the  amount  must  be  about  ten 
times  as  great.  In  other  words,  one-fifth  ounce  of 
viscogen  contains  as  much  lime,  and  therefore  has 
the  same  effect,  as  two  ounces  of  common  lime 
water. 

Requirements  Vary.  All  babies  cannot  use  the 
same  ration.  Some  require  more  food  and  some  less 
than  that  given  in  the  preceding  table.  The  propor- 
tion of  materials  used  also  varies.  Some  babies  re- 
quire more  butterfat,  others  may  be  benefited  by 
more  milk  sugar.  Others  again  may  require  less  of 
these  materials.  The  extent  of  dilution  with  water 
may  be  advantageously  decreased  in  some  cases  and 
increased  in  others.  Lime  has  a  constipating  tend- 
ency and  may  have  to  be  reduced  in  some  cases. 
The  baby  must  be  closely  watched  to  learn  its  re- 
quirements. 

How  to  Feed.  During  the  first  five  months,  babies 
should  be  fed  about  every  three  hours  during  the 
day  and  once  during  the  night.  After  the  fifth 
month,  the  interval  between  feedings  may  be  in- 
creased to  three  and  one-half  and  four  hours  and  the 
night  feeding  omitted. 

The  allowance  at  a  feeding  averages  about  two 
ounces  the  first  week,  three  ounces  the  second  and 
third  weeks,  three  and  one-half  to  four  ounces  from 
the  third  to  tenth  week.  After  this  time  the  allow- 
ance is  gradually  increased  so  that  at  the  ninth 
month  about  eight  ounces  are  used  at  a  feeding. 

The  manner  of  feeding  discussed  here  may  have 
to  be  modified  somewhat  according  as  the  child  is 
weak  or  strong. 


50          MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE   HOME 

The  Value  of  Whey.     In  ordinary  baby  feeding 
when  the  first  signs  of  digestive  disturbances  appear 


Figure  11 — From  right  to  left  is  quart  of  milk,  rennet  tablets,  whey 
from  quart  of  milk,  curd  from  quart  of  milk 

it  is  important  to  reduce  the  quantity  or  the  quality 
of  the  milk,  or  both,  to  relieve  the  strain  on  the 
digestive  system.  In  cases,  however,  where  babies 
are  suffering  from  severe  attacks  of  indigestion  or 
other  sickness,  they  are  usually  materially  benefited 
by  temporarily  substituting  whey  for  the  modified 
milk.  Whey  is  largely  composed  of  milk  sugar  and 
albumen,  the  two  soluble  constituents  of  milk.  It  is 
a  light  food,  very  easily  digested. 

For  method  of  preparing  whey  see  page  63. 

Herd  Milk  Preferred.  Herd  milk  on  account  of 
its  greater  uniformity,  is  always  preferred  to  milk 
from  single  cows.  Not  only  does  the  quality  of  milk 
from  individual  cows  fluctuate  greatly  from  day  to 


MODIFIED    MILK  51 

v 

day,  but  it  also  increases  in  richness  with  the  ad- 
vance of  the  period  of  lactation.  In  herd  milk  these 
daily  variations  are  less  the  larger  the  herd.  More- 
over, dairymen  retailing  milk  from  herds,  have  cows 
freshen  at  different  periods  so  as  to  maintain  a  uni- 
form supply  of  milk  throughout  the  year,  thus 
minimizing  the  effects  from  the  advancing  period  of 
lactation. 

Goat's  Milk.  Milk  from  single  goats  has  the  same 
objections  as  that  from  single  cows.  Such  milk  must 
be  modified  the  same  as  cow's  milk.  Indeed,  in 
spite  of  the  claims  made  for  goat's  milk,  there  is  no 
better  substitute  for  breast  milk  than  cow's  milk. 

Other  Substitutes.  Where  cow's  milk  cannot  be 
obtained,  sweetened  condensed  and  evaporated  milkr; 
may  be  used.  But  there  are  various  objections  to 
this  class  of  milk  for  which  the  reader  is  referred 
to  chapter  X. 

Various  proprietary  foods  are  in  extensive  use, 
but  according  to  the  eminent  baby  feeding  specialist, 
Dr.  L.  E.  Holt,  these  are  less  satisfactory  than  any 
of  the  other  substitutes  for  breast  milk  that  have 
been  considered. 

How  to  Keep  Modified  Milk.  As  soon  as  the  milk 
is  pasteurized,  it  should  be  put  into  sterile  bottles. 
Some  prefer  to  put  the  milk  directly  into  the  nurs- 
ing bottles,  each  holding  enough  milk  for  one  feed. 
But  the  simplest  method  is  to  put  the  milk  into  two 
pint  bottles  and  then  pour  the  milk  from  these  into 
the  nursing  bottle  as  required.  Small  nursing  bot- 
tles are  difficult  to  clean  and  for  this  reason  the 
fewer  in  use  the  better. 


52          MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 

In  all  cases  the  milk  should  be  covered  and  stored 
at  a  low  temperature  in  a  clean  place. 

Warming  the  Milk.  Without  exception  the  milk 
should  be  warmed  before  feeding.  This  is  best  ac- 
complished by  surrounding  the  nursing  bottle  con- 
taining the  baby's  feed  with  warm  water.  Frequently 
where  haste  is  made  to  warm  the  milk  quickly,  the 
bottle  is  surrounded  with  hot  water  (150°  F.  or 
above).  This,  however,  has  the  same  bad  effect  as 
pasteurizing  milk  at  these  temperatures.  The  milk 
which  comes  in  contact  with  the  glass  has  practically 
the  same  temperature  as  the  surrounding  water  and 
this  portion  may  be  entirely  overheated  when  the 
mixture  is  only  moderately  warm. 

All  milk  should  be  fed  at  blood  temperature,  or 
98°  F. 


CHAPTER  X 
CONDENSED  AND  EVAPORATED  MILKS 

Sweetened  condensed  and  evaporated  milks  are 
made  as  a  rule  from  a  good  quality  of  cow's  milk. 
The  bulk  of  this  class  of  milk  is  retailed  in  her- 
metically sealed  tin  cans  holding  six  or  more  ounces 
of  milk.  The  greatest  field  of  usefulness  for  milk  of 
this  kind  is  in  sections  where  it  is  difficult  to  obtain 
fresh  milk. 

Sweetened  Condensed  Milk.  In  the  manufacture 
of  this  class  of  milk,  about  two  and  one-half  to  two 
and  three-fourths  pounds  of  fresh  milk  are  required 
to  make  one  pound  of  condensed  milk.  The  con- 
densation is  accomplished  in  vacuo,  that  is,  under 
reduced  atmospheric  pressure.  In  this  way  the 
natural  boiling  temperature  is  reduced  to  a  point 
where  the  moisture  can  be  driven  off  at  a  relatively 
low  temperature.  It  is  only  at  the  beginning  of  the 
condensing  process  that  the  milk  is  exposed,  for  a 
short  time,  to  a  high  temperature.  This  results  in 
the  destruction  of  most  of  the  bacteria  present  in 
the  milk.  It  also  renders  insoluble  part  of  the  min- 
eral matter,  especially  the  lime. 

Condensed  milk  is  not  sterile,  however,  its  preser- 
vation being  effected  by  the  addition  of  large  quanti- 
ties of  cane  sugar  (sucrose).  About  40  per  cent,  of 
condensed  milk  is  cane  sugar.  The  syrupy  condition 
produced  by  the  sugar  stops  ordinary  bacterial 
growth. 

53 


54         MIUC  AND   MILK   PRODUCTS   IN   THE   HOME 

The  addition  of  large  quantities  of  sugar  reduces 
the  digestibility  of  the  milk  because  cane  sugar  is 
not  as  easily  digested  as  the  constituents  of  fresh 
milk.  The  cane  sugar  also  unbalances  condensed 
milk  as  a  food,  making  it  rich  in  carbohydrates  and 
relatively  poor  in  proteids.  In  this  connection  it 
will  be  remembered  that  fresh  cow's  milk  is  a  well 
balanced  food. 

Sweetened  condensed  milk  has  an  average  com- 
position as  follows: 

Water    26.5  per  cent. 

Butterf at  9.0  per  cent. 

Proteids  8.5  per  cent. 

Milk  sugar 13.3  per  cent. 

Cane  sugar 40.9  per  cent. 

Ash  1.8  per  cent. 

100.0 

Evaporated  Milk.  This  is  unsweetened  condensed 
milk,  preserved  by  sterilization  under  steam  pres- 
sure. From  two  to  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  fresh 
milk  are  required  to  make  one  pound  of  evaporated 
milk. 

The  high  temperature  required  to  render  the  milk 
sterile  produces  changes  in  the  milk  constituents. 
Part  of  the  milk  sugar  is  oxidized  or  caramelized, 
giving  the  milk  a  light  brown  color.  Most  of  the  al- 
bumen is  rendered  insoluble.  Usually  most  of  the 
casein  is  precipitated  but  the  precipitate  is  again 
broken  up  by  vigorous  shaking  in  the  process  of 
manufacture.  A  large  portion  of  the  ash  is  rendered 
insoluble,  the  lime  often  appearing  in  the  bottom  of 
the  can  in  the  form  of  insoluble  granules.  The 


CONDENSED   AND   EVAPORATED    MILKS  55 

enzymes  or  digestive  ferments  are  also  destroyed  by 
the  sterilizing  process. 

The  average  composition  of  evaporated  milk  is  as 
follows : 

Water    73.0  per  cent. 

Butterf at  8.3  per  cent. 

Proteids  7.5  per  cent. 

Milk  sugar 9.7  per  cent. 

Ash  1.5  per  cent. 


CHAPTER  XI 
SOUR  MILK 

In  discussing  the  use  of  sour  milk,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  souring  is  due  to  the  lactic  acid 
bacteria  which  are  always  present  in  milk.  These 
bacteria,  besides  souring  milk,  antagonize  most  of 
the  common  milk  bacteria,  especially  the  putrefac- 
tive kinds.  They  are  also  known  to  be  antagonistic 
to  many  disease  producing  bacteria.  Sour  milk  is, 
therefore,  commonly  looked  upon  as  having  anti- 
septic properties,  and,  because  of  this,  it  is  exten- 
sively recommended  as  a  tonic  or  health  drink.  It 
is  now  sold  to  the  trade  under  various  names  such 
as  buttermilk,  cultured  milk,  Bulgara,  Pokolac, 
Bacillac,  Fermillac,  Vitalac,  Yoghurt,  Zoulac,  etc. 
Some  of  these  preparations  are  made  from  partially 
skimmed  milk. 

Medical  Value.  It  was  Dr.  Metchnikoff  of  the 
Pasteur  Institute  who  first  proclaimed  the  full  vir- 
tues of  sour  milk,  especially  that  soured  with  the 
Bacillus  Bulgaricus,  which  is  the  name  applied  to 
a  species  of  lactic  acid  bacteria  indigenous  to  Bul- 
garia where  Metchnikoff  found  people  to  live  to  an 
unusually  old  age.  Investigation  proved  to  him  that 
the  regular  indulgence  in  a  drink,  Yoghurt,  con- 
taining this  bacillus,  was  largely  responsible  for  the 
good  health  and  longevity  of  Bulgarians.  Metchni- 
koff demonstrated  that  the  Bulgarian  and  other 
lactic  acid  bacteria  are  antagonistic  to  putrefactive 

56 


SOUR    MILK  57 

and  allied  organisms  and  that,  by  virtue  of  this, 
when  taken  into  the  system,  will  check  putrefaction 
in  the  intestines  and  thus  prevent  the  formation  of 
toxic  substances,  which  give  rise  to  a  retinue  of  in- 
testinal and  bodily  disorders.  The  antiseptic  value 
of  sour  milk  is  believed  by  Metchnikoff  to  be  the 
means  of  prolonging  life  to  a  very  appreciable  ex- 
tent. 

Dr.  North's  report  on  the  antiseptic  value  of 
lactic  acid  bacteria  in  the  treatment  of  certain  dis- 
eases, says  that  these  bacteria  as  a  wash  or  spray 
on  inflamed  surfaces  or  cavities  often  diminish 
the  discharge  upon  such  surfaces  or  cavities; 
that  they  often  diminish  odors  caused  by  putrefac- 
tion ;  and  that  they  sometimes  appear  to  check  both 
acute  and  chronic  inflammations  caused  by  infec- 
tions. 

Undoubtedly  in  many  cases  where  favorable  re- 
sults have  been  obtained  from  the  use  of  sour  milk, 
the  acid  itself  has  been  of  much  value.  Indeed,  it 
is  well  known  that  the  acid  of  sour  milk  has  very 
beneficial  effects  in  certain  stomach  disturbances. 
Sour  milk  is  frequently  fed  to  babies  suffering  from 
chronic  or  acute  indigestion. 

As  to  the  antiseptic  value  of  sour  milk,  it  has 
been  shown  experimentally  that  dangerous  disease 
bacteria,  like  those  causing  typhoid  fever,  are  killed 
as  a  rule  in  about  four  days  when  placed  in  sour 
milk. 

Natural  Buttermilk.  Most  butter  is  made  from 
sour  cream,  and  the  buttermilk,  which  is  a  by- 


58          MIUC   AND    MILK   PRODUCTS   IN    THE   HOME 

product  of  butter  manufacture,  is  therefore  naturally 
sour.  When  butter  is  made  from  clean  flavored 
sour  cream,  the  buttermilk  has  practically  the  same 
tonic  or  medicinal  value  as  other  commercial  forms 
of  sour  milk.  As  a  rule,  however,  natural  butter- 
milk is  inferior  to  these,  both  in  flavor  and  in  the 
quantity  of  desirable  bacteria  it  contains.  The  lactic 
acid  bacteria  die  off  very  rapidly  in  sour  milk, 
and,  since  natural  buttermilk  is  usually  older  when 
sold  than  other  commercial  forms,  it  naturally  con- 
tains fewer  of  these  bacteria. 

Ordinary  Sour  Milk  and  Skimmilk.  It  is  well 
known  that  good,  natural  buttermilk  has  a 
peculiar  flavor  which  is  highly  relished  by  most 
people  and  which  is  different  from  that  of  ordinary 
sour  milk  or  sour  skimmilk.  When,  however,  or- 
dinary sour  curdled  milk  or  skimmilk  is  churned  or 
agitated  the  same  as  is  cream  in  making  butter,  it 
will  assume  the  characteristic  flavor  of  natural 
buttermilk.  The  churning  process  incorporates  air 
and  thoroughly  breaks  up  the  curd  clots,  resulting 
in  a  smooth,  thick  liquid  which  cannot  be  distin- 
guished from  ordinary  good  buttermilk. 

A  reasonably  good  buttermilk  or  sour  milk  for 
drinking  may,  therefore,  be  made  by  allowing  milk 
or  skimmilk  to  curdle  thoroughly  and  then  breaking 
up  the  curd  by  vigorous  agitation.  The  more  butter- 
fat  the  milk  contains,  the  greater  the  palatability 
and  food  value  of  the  sour  milk  made  from  it. 

Ideal  Sour  Milk  for  Drinking.  As  has  already 
been  pointed  out,  ordinary  milk  contains  many  kinds 
of  bacteria, — good,  bad  and  indifferent.  To  get  the 


SOUR    MILK 


59 


best  sour  milk,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  destroy 
the  bacteria  in  the  milk  by  pasteurization  and  then 
to  add  lactic  acid  bacteria  in  pure  form  in  which 
they  are  generally  spoken  of  as  pure  cultures  of 
lactic  acid  bacteria.  These  cultures  cost  about  50 
cents  per  bottle  and  can  be  made  to  last  about  a 
month. 

Method  of  Using  Cultures  of  Lactic  Acid  Bac- 
teria.    Pasteurize  a  quart  of  milk  at  about  165°  F. 


Figure   12 — Cultures  of  lactic   acid  bacteria 

for  thirty  minutes.  Cool  to  about  80°  F.  Then  add 
bottle  of  lactic  acid  bacteria,  stir  well  and  set 
aside  at  room  temperature  to  sour.  When  thor- 
oughly curdled,  which  usually  requires  twenty-four 
hours,  pasteurize  another  quart  of  milk,  cool  to  80° 
F.  as  before,  and  then  add  a  few  tablespoonfuls  of 
the  curdled  milk  and  allow  to  sour  at  room  tempera- 
ture. In  fact  the  second  bottle  of  sour  milk  is  made 
just  like  the  first  except  that,  in  place  of  the  bottle 
of  culture,  a  few  tablespoonfuls  of  the  curdled  milk 
are  added  to  sour  it.  A  third  bottle  is  prepared 


6O          MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 

from  the  second,  and  so  on,  as  long  as  the  flavor 
remains  good.  When  bad  flavors  appear,  a  new 
bottle  of  culture  must  be  purchased.  It  will  be 
noted  from  this  that  the  process  of  propagating  lac- 
tic acid  cultures  is  somewhat  similar  to  propagating 
yeast  for  bread  making. 

As  soon  as  the  newly  pasteurized  milk  has  been 
inoculated  with  the  curdled  milk,  the  balance  of  the 
curdled  milk  is  then  vigorously  shaken  in  the  bottle 
until  the  curd  is  sufficiently  broken  up  to  make  it 
suitable  for  drinking.  The  best  possible  sour  milk 
obtainable  is  prepared  in  this  way,  and  the  richer 
the  milk  the  more  palatable  it  will  naturally  be. 

By  adding  a  bottle  of  sour  milk  prepared  in  this 
way  to  cream  used  for  buttermaking  or  to  skimmilk 
for  cottage  cheese  making,  the  flavor  of  the  butter 
and  cheese  will  be  greatly  improved. 

Advantages  of  Milk  Soured  in  the  Home.  There 
are  several  important  advantages  in  preparing  sour 
milk  in  the  home  in  the  manner  described  above. 
In  the  first  place  the  sour  milk  can  be  used  in  prime 
condition,  which  is  immediately  after  it  has  curdled. 
At  this  time  it  has  the  mildest  degree  of  acidity  and 
also  contains  the  largest  number  of  lactic  acid  bac- 
teria. 

In  this  connection  it  will  be  remembered  that  soon 
after  curdling,  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  die  off  very 
rapidly,  and  the  older  the  sour  milk  the  fewer  of 
these  bacteria  it  will  contain.  The  highest  tonic  or 
medicinal  value  of  sour  milk  is  therefore  obtained 
when  used  immediately  after  it  has  curdled.  If  kept 


SOUR    MILK  6l 

at  low  temperatures  (below  50°  F.)  sour  milk  may 
be  kept  in  good  condition  for  a  considerable  time. 

Preparing  sour  milk  in  the  home  also  has  all  the 
advantages  described  under  "  Advantages  of  Pas- 
teurizing in  the  Home/  page  39. 

Value  of  Cleanliness.  To  obtain  the  best  sour  milk 
and  to  assist  in  propagating  the  lactic  acid  bacteria 
in  pure  form,  requires  that  all  bottles  and  vessels 
with  which  the  milk  comes  in  contact  be  thoroughly 
sterilized  with  scalding  or  boiling  water  before 
using.  Cleanliness  and  thorough  pasteurization  are 
the  secrets  in  obtaining  fine  flavored  sour  milk. 

Buttermilk  Tablets.  Various  kinds  of  buttermilk 
tablets  are  found  on  the  market  which  consist  of 
small  quantities  of  cultures  of  lactic  acid  bacteria  in 
compressed  form.  These  act  much  more  slowly  than 
the  cultures  obtained  in  bo'ttles  previously  described. 
Otherwise  they  act  in  the  same  manner.  It  is  in- 
tended that  each  bottle  of  sour  milk  be  prepared 
with  a  new  tablet. 


CHAPTER  XII 
WHEY,  SKIMMILK  AND  COTTAGE  CHEESE 

WHEY 

Whey  is  the  by-product  of  the  manufacture  of 
cheese.  It  is  the  liquid  part  of  milk  obtained  by 
curdling  the  milk  with  rennet  extract  and  then 
breaking  up  the  curd  and  applying  heat  for  a  short 
time. 

Composition.  Fresh  whey  made  from  sweet  milk 
has  the  following  average  composition: 

Water    92.84  per  cent. 

Milk  sugar 5.00  per  cent. 

Albumen   0.70  per  cent. 

Casein 0.20  per  cent. 

Butterf at  0.40  per  cent. 

Lactic  acid  0.16  per  cent. 

Ash  0.70  per  cent. 

100.00 

Food  Value.  From  the  composition  it  is  seen  that 
whey  contains  about  the  same  percentage  of  milk 
sugar,  albumen  and  ash  as  milk,  but  the  butterfat 
and  casein  have  been  largely  removed.  Whey  has 
approximately  half  the  food  value  of  milk.  With 
most  of  the  insoluble  casein  removed,  whey  consti- 
tutes a  light  food,  extremely  easy  of  digestion.  It 
is,  therefore,  especially  valuable  as  a  substitute  for 
milk  in  feeding  babies  suffering  from  indigestion  and 
during  general  illness.  It  is  equally  valuable  for 
children  and  adults  suffering  from  digestive  dis- 
turbances. 

62 


WHEY,    SKIM  MILK   AND   COTTAGE)   CHEESE  63 

Preparation  of  Whey.  Whey  is  prepared  as  fol- 
lows :  Heat  a  quart  of  milk,  to  about  90°  P. ;  add  one 
junket  tablet,  dissolved  in  cold  water,  or  about  five 
drops  of  rennet  extract  or  rennin ;  mix  vigorously 
for  a  moment  and  then  let  stand  quietly  to  curdle. 
When  well  curdled,  slice  the  curd  into  pieces  about 
the  size  of  a  hickory  nut  and  then  pasteurize  the 
same  as  milk,  stirring  the  curd  during  first  five 
minutes  of  heating  and  occasionally  thereafter. 
Strain  while  hot  through  several  thicknesses  of 
cheese  cloth,  and  bottle.  Keep  the  whey  cold  and 
use  it  unmodified. 

Making  Rich  Whey.  In  making  whey  the  chief 
purpose  is  to  get  rid  of  the  casein,  which  is  hardest 
to  digest.  But  in  the  ordinary  process  described 
above,  most  of  the  butterfat  is  incidently  eliminated 
with  the  casein. 

More  of  the  butterfat  can  be  retained  in  the  whey 
by  mixing  the  curdling  agent  (rennet  extract)  with 
the  milk  while  cold  (45°  to  55°  F.)  and  keeping  the 
milk  cold  a  number  of  hours.  The  rennet  extract 
scarcely  acts  in  cold  milk  and  the  cream  is  therefore 
free  to  rise  and  will  continue  rising  as  long  as  the 
milk  is  kept  cold.  If  the  milk  is  warmed  later  to 
the  usual  curdling  temperature  without  disturbing 
it,  practically  all  of  the  cream  which  has  risen  on  it 
will  pass  into  the  whey.  As  much  as  one-half  of 
the  original  butterfat  in  the  milk  can  be  worked  into 
the  whey  by  keeping  the  milk  cold  several  hours. 

SKIMMILK 

This  is  milk  from  which  the  cream  has  been  re- 
moved. It  is  essentially  the  milk  less  the  butterfat 


64          MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS   IN    THE    HOME 

as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  average  composi 
tion: 

Water 90.50  per  cent. 

Butterf at  0.10  per  cent. 

Milk  sugar  4.95  per  cent. 

Casein    3.15  per  cent. 

Albumen   0.52  per  cent. 

Ash  0.78  per  cent. 

100.00 

From  the  composition  it  is  seen  that  skimmilk  has 
essentially  the  same  proteid  and  mineral  content  as 
milk,  and  therefore  has  practically  the  same  muscle 
and  bone  building  value.  Its  total  food  value,  how- 
ever, is  only  about  one-half  that  of  milk. 

COTTAGE   CHEESE 

Food  Value.  Cottage  cheese  is  made  from  skim- 
milk  and  consists  chiefly  of  casein  and  water.  It  is 
therefore  a  proteid  food  like  beef  steak,  with  which 
it  compares  favorably  in  food  value.  When  moder- 
ately soft  and  moist  it  ranks  as  one  of  the  most 
digestible  of  foods.  The  presence  of  the  acid  and 
the  large  number  of  lactic  acid  bacteria  in  fresh 
cottage  cheese  also  gives  it  tonic  value  similar  to 
that  of  sour  milk.  Its  composition  is  as  follows: 

Water    73.0  per  cent. 

Proteids  19.0  per  cent. 

Sugar  and  lactic  acid 5.5  per  cent. 

Ash   2.5  per  cent. 

100.00 

Home  Manufacture.  Cottage  cheese  is  easily  made 
as  follows :  Allow  skimmilk  to  sour  at  room  tern- 


WHEY,    SKIM  MILK    AND    COTTAGE    CHEESE  65 

perature  (about  75°  F.),  and  when  firmly  curdled, 
heat  to  about  90°  F.  and  pour  the  curd  into  a  cheese 
cloth  bag  and  hang  this  up  to  drain.  The  draining 
requires  a  number  of  hours  and  should  be  continued 
until  all  free  moisture  has  escaped.  When  suf- 
ficiently drained  add  a  little  salt  and  cream  to  im- 
prove the  flavor. 

The  finest  flavored  cottage  cheese  is  obtained  by 
adding  to  the  skimmilk  a  small  amount  of  milk 
soured  with  cultures  of  lactic  acid  bacteria.  See 
page  59. 

Defects  in  Cottage  Cheese.  Commercial  cottage 
cheese  often  has  a  dry,  rubbery  texture,  or  it  may 
be  bitter  and  sour.  The  former  condition  is  caused 
by  employing  too  high  a  temperature  in  making  the 
cheese,  the  latter  by  too  much  moisture  and  age. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
%,  CREAM 

When  milk  remains  undisturbed  the  butterfat 
globules,  being  light,  begin  to  rise  and  soon  there 
will  be  a  rich  layer  over  the  milk,  which  is  cream. 
The  longer  milk  stands,  within  certain  limits,  the 
more  cream  will  form  at  the  surface.  The  limit  of 
creaming  is  generally  reached  in  twenty-four  hours. 
Practically  all  cream  sold  at  the  present  time  is 
separated  instantly  from  milk  by  centrifugal  force, 
which  is  generated  in  a  "cream  separator.'  By 
means  of  an  adjustment,  cream  of  any  richness  can 
be  produced  with  this  method  of  creaming. 

Composition.  Cream  contains  all  the  constituents 
found  in  milk,  with  the  butterfat  greatly  predom- 
inating. The  following  is  the  composition  of  a 
fairly  good  quality  of  market  cream: 

Water    66.41  per  cent. 

Butterfat  25.72  per  cent. 

Casein  and  albumen 3.70  per  cent. 

Milk  sugar 3.54  per  cent. 

Ash  0.63  per  cent. 

100.00 

Cream  of  course  is  valued  for  its  butterfat,  and 
the  price  asked  for  it  varies  almost  directly  in  pro- 
portion to  its  richness  in  this  constituent.  Thus 
cream  containing  40  per  cent,  butterfat  sells  for 
practically  double  the  price  of  20  per  cent,  cream. 
Market  cream  varies  in  richness  from  18  to  50  per 
cent.,  the  great  bulk  of  it  containing  about  20  per 
cent,  butterfat. 

66 


CREAM  67 

Food  Value.  Cream  is  rarely  purchased  for  its 
food  value  except  when  prescribed  by  a  physician 
for  patients  requiring  a  rich  and  very  digestible 
diet.  Being  rich  in  butterfat,  it  is  naturally  a  very 
nutritious,  but  one  sided,  food.  It  is  rich  in  heat 
and  energy-forming  material  and  relatively  poor  in 
muscle  forming  elements. 

Cream  is  chiefly  used  as  a  relish  and  in  this  re- 
spect undoubtedly  stands  -without  a  rival. 

Pasteurizing  Cream.  Cream  is  pasteurized  in  pre- 
cisely the  same  manner  as  milk.  Moreover,  there 
exists  the  same  necessity  for  this  treatment  because 
cream  contains  the  same  kinds  of  bacteria  as  the 
milk  from  which  it  has  been  obtained  and  in  even 
larger  numbers. 

One  effect  of  pasteurizing  cream  is  to  reduce  its 
body  or  viscosity;  this,  however,  is  largely  re- 
stored by  holding  the  cream  at  a  low  temperature  a 
number  of  hours  after  pasteurization.  A  quick 
method  of  restoring  the  viscosity  of  pasteurized 
cream  is  to  treat  it  with  a  small  quantity  of  soluble 
lime.  This  not  only  restores  the  original  body  or 
thickness  of  the  cream,  but  increases  it  to  such  an 
extent  that  a  great  deal  of  cream,  both  pasteurized 
and  unpasteurized,  is  fraudulently  so  treated.  It 
leads  the  consumer  to  believe  that  his  cream  is  richer 
than  it  actually  is. 

Viscogen.  The  soluble  lime  which  is  added  to 
cream  is  known  as  viscogen.  It  consists  of  lime  dis- 
solved in  a  strong  solution  of  sugar.  The  method  of 
preparation  is  as  follows:  Slake  one  part  of  good 


68 


MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE;    HOME; 


quick  lime  in  three  parts  of  water;  add  this  to  two 
and  one-half  parts  of  sugar  dissolved  in  five  parts 


Figure   13 — Materials   for  viscogen.     At  the   left  is  sugar   and   water 

in  which  it  is  to  be  dissolved;  at  the  right  is  lime  and  water  in 

which  it  is  to  be  dissolved 

of  water.  Shake  the  mixture  at  intervals  for  about 
an  hour  and  then  allow  to  stand  quietly  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  clear  liquid  which  has  formed  is 
viscogen.  This  should  be  carefully  bottled,  either 
with  the  sediment  or  without.  The  sediment  con- 
sists of  undissolved  lime.  Viscogen  will  keep  for 
weeks  if  kept  well  stoppered  in  a  dark,  cold  place. 


Figure  14 — From  left  to  right  is  sugar  solution,  slaked  lime,  viscogen. 
Note  sediment  of  undissolved  lime  in  bottle  of  viscogen  at  right 


CREAM  69 

The  purpose  of  the  sugar  is  to  increase  the  solubil- 
ity of  the  lime.  Viscogen  is  about  ten  times  as 
strong  as  ordinary  lime  water  prepared  without 
sugar. 

Aside  from  its  use  in  thickening  thin  cream  and  in 
assisting  in  the  whipping  of  either  pasteurized  or 
unpasteurized  cream,  viscogen  is  very  useful  also  in 
modifying  milk.  See  page  47. 

Visco-Cream.  The  amount  of  viscogen  required  to 
restore  the  original  consistency  of  pasteurized  cream 
is  about  one  part  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  parts  of 
cream,  which  is  equivalent  to  two-thirds  teaspoon- 
ful  of  viscogen  to  one  pint  of  cream.  Cream  that 
has  been  so  treated  and  sold  to  the  public  must  be 
labeled  visco-cream.  But  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
detecting  the  small  quantity  of  lime  added,  a  great 
deal  of  treated  cream  is  sold  as  untreated  cream. 

Homogenized  Cream.  As  previously  stated,  the 
addition  of  lime  water  (viscogen)  to  cream  materially 
increases  its  body,  making  it  look  much  richer  than 
it  actually  is.  Another  method  of  increasing  the 
body  of  cream  is  to  force  it  under  high  pressure 
through  a  special  machine  which  breaks  up  the  fat 
globules  into  very  minute  particles.  This  process 
is  known  as  homogenizing.  A  naturally  poor  qual- 
ity of  cream  can  be  made  to  look  fairly  rich  by  sub- 
jecting it  to  the  homogenizing  process.  A  great 
deal  of  market  cream  is  homogenized  at  the  pres- 
ent time. 

Whipping  Cream.  To  get  cream  to  whip  satis- 
factorily several  important  conditions  are  necessary : 


7O         MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS   IN    THE    HOME 

The  cream  must  be  fairly  rich  and  slightly  acid;  it 
must  have  been  kept  cold  at  least  two  hours  previous 
to  whipping  and  must  have  a  temperature  not  ex- 
ceeding 60°  F.  during  whipping.  The  richer  the 
cream  and  the  lower  the  temperature  the  better  it 
will  whip.  To  secure  the  necessary  acidity,  cream 
should  be  at  least  twelve  hours  old  before  it  is 
whipped.  Cream  containing  about  30  per  cent,  but- 
terfat  and  having  a  temperature  of  50°  F.  or  below, 
will  whip  very  easily. 

The  addition  of  one  part  of  viscogen  to  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  parts  of  cream  will  materially  as- 
sist in  whipping  it,  especially  if  it  is  poor  in  butter- 
fat.  Cream  which  has  been  treated  with  viscogen 
will  also  keep  sweet  considerably  longer  than  un- 
treated cream. 

To  avoid  too  high  a  temperature  during  whipping, 
the  cream  dish  and  whipper  should  be  thoroughly 
cooled  before  whipping  and  the  whipping  should  be 
done  in  a  cool  room. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
ICE  CREAM 

As  a  Food  and  Delicacy.  Ice  cream  is  one  of  the 
most  popular  of  all  delicacies  and  its  consumption, 
in  recent  years,  has  reached  enormous  proportions. 
When  properly  made  and  handled,  ice  cream  is  very 
wholesome  and  digestible.  It  also  has  considerable 
food  value,  in  which  respect  it  compares  favorably 
with  ordinary  commercial  cream.  It  furnishes,  how- 
ever, a  one-sided  diet,  being  rich  in  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates (sugar)  and  very  poor  in  proteids. 

Value  of  Home  Made  Ice  Cream.  A  great  deal  of 
ice  cream  sold  on  the  market  consists  of  cheap,  in- 
ferior material.  Much  of  it  is  made  from  old,  stale 
cream  and  with  large  amounts  of  fillers  and  thick- 
eners like  gelatin,  corn  starch,  tapioca,  arrow  root, 
gum  tragacanth,  etc.  Frequently  ice  cream  is  stored 
weeks  before  it  is  marketed. 

There  is  particular  danger  in  old  ice  cream  be- 
cause of  the  possible  presence  of  ptomaine  poisons. 
These  poisons  are  the  result  of  certain  bacteria 
which  are  capable  of  growing  at  freezing  tempera- 
tures. It  is  well  known  that  every  year  many  per- 
sons are  poisoned  by  eating  ice  cream  and  such 
poisoning  is  attributable  to  the  use  of  unsanitary 
cream  and  to  holding  ice  cream  too  long  at  low 
temperatures. 

It  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said  that  the 
safest  ice  cream  is  that  which  is  made  in  the  home 
from  sweet,  pasteurized  cream  and  in  which  nothing 
but  good  cream,  sugar  and  flavoring  is  used. 


72          MILK   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 

Kind  of  Cream  for  Ice  Cream.  Use  the  best  fla- 
vored sweet  cream  containing  about  20  per  cent,  but- 
terfat  and  pasteurize  it.  To  secure  a  good  bodied  ice 
cream,  the  cream  must  be  kept  cold  at  least  six 
hours  before  freezing.  This  is  especially  important 
when  cream  is  pasteurized. 

Freezing  Process.  In  making  ice  cream  the  object 
is  not  only  to  freeze  the  material  (mix)  but  to  incor- 
porate a  certain  amount  of  air.  Too  much  or  too 
little  air  impairs  the  body  of  the  finished  product. 

Starting  with  cream  at  a  temperature  of  about 
35°  F.,  the  time  required  to  freeze  ice  cream  should 
average  about  twelve  minutes,  and  to  get  the  best 
consistency  the  temperature  at  the  close  of  the 
freezing  process  should  be  approximately  28°  F. 

Too  quick  freezing  causes  the  water  to  separate 
from  the  cream,  which  results  in  a  granular  ice 
cream.  Freezing  too  slowly  reduces  the  overrun  and 
tends  to  make  the  ice  cream  smeary. 

To  reduce  the  temperature  of  a  mass  of  cream  be- 
low the  freezing  point,  requires  a  freezing  mixture 
of  a  low  temperature.  Such  a  mixture  is  secured  by 
mixing  salt  and  crushed  ice  in  the  proportion  of  one 
part  of  salt  to  about  three  of  ice.  The  purpose  of 
the  salt  is  to  lower  the  freezing  point  of  the  melting 
ice  and  to  hasten  the  melting. 

To  melt  one  pound  of  ice  at  32°  F.  into  water  at 
the  same  temperature  requires  142  heat  units.  Rap- 
idly melting  ice,  therefore,  absorbs  a  large  quantity 
of  heat  which,  in  the  freezing  of  cream,  is  largely 
extracted  from  the  cream. 


ICE   CREAM  73 

The  temperature  of  the  ice  cream  mix  when  start- 
ing the  freezer  should  be  as  near  freezing  as  possible 
to  prevent  churning  the  cream.  The  tendency  to 
churn  is  also  lessened  by  revolving  the  freezer 
slowly  the  first  few  minutes  in  freezing. 

In  packing  the  freezing  mixture  around  the  cream 
container,  fill  the  freezer  about  one-third  full  of 
finely  crushed  ice  and  finish  the  filling  by  using  salt 
and  ice  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  to  three.  As 
the  ice  mixture  works  down  during  the  freezing 
process,  continue  adding  more  salt  and  ice  as  needed. 

The  freezer  should  be  stopped  before  the  cream 
becomes  too  thick,  else  it  will  lose  some  of  the  air 
that  has  been  incorporated  as  well  as  show  a  tend- 
ency to  coarseness  in  texture.  Yield  and  quality 
therefore  demand  that  the  freezer  be  stopped  while 
the  cream  is  still  a  trifle  soft. 

Vanilla  Ice  Cream.  To  make  a  gallon  of  finished 
ice  cream,  requires  about  two-thirds  of  a  gallon  of 
cream  to  which  should  be  added  about  one  pound  of 
sugar,  which  should  be  well  mixed  with  the  cream 
and  allowed  to  dissolve  before  starting  the  freezer. 
Next  add  at  the  rate  of  about  two-thirds  ounce  of 
vanilla  extract  and  freeze. 

Chocolate  Ice  Cream.    This  can  be  made  by  add 
ing  chocolate  flavor  to  finished  vanilla  ice  cream. 

Where  a  regular  batch  of  chocolate  ice  cream  is 
made,  the  chocolate  is  added  before  starting  to 
freeze. 

Lemon  Ice  Cream.  In  making  lemon  flavored  ice 
cream,  use  the  best  paper-wrapped  lemons,  free  from 


74          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 

any  signs  of  decay.  Wash  the  lemons  lightly  in  cold 
water  and  grate  off  the  outer,  yellowish  portion  of 
the  rind,  being  careful  not  to  grate  off  any  of  the 
white  portion,  which  is  very  bitter.  Mix  the  grated 
rind  with  sugar,  using  one  ounce  of  sugar  for  each 
lemon  rind.  Next  cut  the  lemons  in  two  and  squeeze 
out  the  juice,  removing  any  seeds  that  may  have 
dropped  in  from  the  squeezer.  Mix  the  juice  with 
the  sugared  rind  and  add  orange  juice  to  the  mix- 
ture, using  one  orange  to  every  three  or  four  lemons. 
Allow  the  mixture  to  stand  for  about  one  hour,  stir- 
ring it  occasionally,  and  then  strain.  Use  at  the 
rate  of  one-half  pint  per  gallon  of  cream.  The 
flavor  is  not  added  to  the  cream  until  it  is  nearly 
frozen  to  prevent  curdling  it.  Use  two  pounds  of 
sugar  per  gallon  of  cream. 

Walnut  Ice  Cream.  Use  one  gallon  of  cream,  one 
and  one-half  pounds  of  sugar,  two-thirds  ounce 
vanilla  extract  and  two-thirds  pound  of  ground  wal- 
nut meats.  Freeze  the  same  as  vanilla  ice  cream. 

Other  Nut  Ice  Creams.  Chestnut,  filbert,  hazelnut, 
pecan,  peanut  and  almond  ice  creams  may  be  pre- 
pared essentially  the  same  as  walnut  ice  cream. 

Strawberry  Ice  Cream.  Use  one  gallon  of  cream, 
one  and  one-half  pounds  of  sugar  and  one-third 
quart  of  crushed  strawberries.  The  fruit  should  be 
added  to  the  cream  after  it  is  partially  frozen  so 
as  not  to  curdle  it  or  to  have  the  fruit  settle  to  the 
bottom. 

Other  Fruit  Ice  Creams.  Cherry,  raspberry,  pine- 
apple, peach,  apricot,  currant,  grape  and  cranberry 


ICE    CREAM  75 

ice  creams  are  made  the  same  as  strawberry,  except 
that  the  amount  of  sugar  is  varied  according  to  the 
acidity  of  the  fruit. 

Packing  Ice  Cream.  Remove  the  ice  cream  from 
the  freezer  while  still  in  rather  soft  condition  and 
put  the  same  in  packing  cans  which  have  been  thor- 
oughly chilled  by  having  the  ice  and  salt  packed 
around  them  about  ten  minutes  before  receiving  the 
ice  cream. 

Remove  the  brine  and  repack  often  enough  to 
prevent  melting.  In  the  melting  process  the  water 
separates  and  forms  undesirable  crystals  when  the 
cream  is  refrozen. 

The  Overrun  or  Swell.  This  refers  to  the  excess 
of  ice  cream  over  cream.  Anything  that  tends  to 
incorporate  and  hold  air  in  cream  conduces  to  a 
large  overrun.  Thus  excessive  beating  of  the  cream 
during  freezing  mixes  a  great  deal  of  air  with  it, 
and  hence  increases  the  overrun.  A  high  viscosity 
of  the  cream  holds  the  air  incorporated  during  freez- 
ing. Fresh  separator  cream  has  a  low  viscosity, 
that  is,  does  not  whip  well,  hence  will  not  swell 
so  much  in  freezing  as  cream  that  has  been  kept  cold 
for  twenty-four  hours.  Pasteurized  cream  also  has 
a  low  viscosity,  but  this  will  improve  by  keeping 
the  cream  at  a  low  temperature  a  number  of  hours 
before  freezing. 

An  overrun  of  from  50  to  60  per  cent,  is  about 
right. 


CHAPTER  XV 
FANCY  CHEESE 

AMERICAN  NEUFCHATEL  CHEESE 

Method  of  Manufacture.  American  Neufchatel 
cheese  is  made  essentially  as  follows:  Put  a  quart 
of  milk  in  a  suitable  dish  and  add  one  drop  of  ren- 
net extract  (or  rennin)  or  one-fourth  junket  tablet 
dissolved  in  cold  water,  thoroughly  mix  and  allow 
to  curdle.  When  thoroughly  curdled,  pour  the  curd 
into  a  cheese  cloth  bag  and  hang  it  up  to  drain. 
When  all  free  moisture  has  drained  away  the  cheese 
is  salted  just  enough  to  make  the  salt  perceptible  to 
the  taste.  An  ordinary  room  temperature  (70  to 
75°  F.)  should  be  maintained  from  the  time  the  ren- 
net extract  is  added  until  the  cheese  is  finished. 

Neufchatel  cheese  is  usually  sold  in  cylindrical 
packages  being  first  wrapped  in  oiled  or  parchment 
paper  and  then  in  tin  foil. 

Keeping  Quality.  Neufchatel  cheese  is  best  when 
fresh.  It  should  always  be  kept  cold  until  con- 
sumed. Owing  to  its  short  keeping  quality,  it  is 
difficult  to  buy  this  cheese  in  prime  condition  during 
the  summer. 

Composition  and  Food  Value.  Neufchatel  cheese 
has  an  average  composition  as  follows : 

Water   50  per  cent. 

Butterf at    24  per  cent. 

Proteids    18  per  cent. 

Sugar,  lactic  acids,  etc 5  per  cent. 

Ash    3  per  cent. 

100  per  cent. 


FANCY   CHEESE  77 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  cheese  is  rich  in  butter- 
fat  as  well  as  in  proteids,  which  makes  it  not  only 
a  more  nutritious,  but  also  a  better  balanced  food, 
than  cottage  cheese.  The  presence  of  butterfat  also 
increases  its  palatability  and  digestibility.  When 
consumed  fresh,  Neuf chatel  is  one  of  the  most  whole- 
some of  all  foods  and  possesses  tonic  value  similar  to 
that  of  sour  milk.  Its  food  value  is  practically 
double  that  of  meat. 

Quality  Varies.  A  great  deal  of  so-called  Neuf- 
chatel  cheese  is  made  from  skimmilk  or  partially 
skimmed  milk.  The  food  value  and  digestibility  of 
the  cheese  is  reduced,  of  course,  by  the  removal  of 
cream  from  the  milk. 

CREAM  CHEESE 

Cream  cheese  is  made  from  milk  to  which  enough 
cream  has  been  added  to  bring  the  butterfat  content 
to  about  ten  per  cent.  The  method  of  manufacture 
is  the  same  as  for  Neufchatel  cheese.  In  composi- 
tion, digestibility  and  total  food  value  it  ranks  well 
with  Neufchatel  cheese,  but  as  a  food  it  is  rather 
unbalanced  owing  to  the  large  proportion  of  but- 
terfat as  will  be  noted  from  the  following  composi- 
tion: 

Water  44  per  cent. 

Butterfat    40  per  cent. 

Proteids    12  per  cent. 

Sugar,  lactic  acid,  etc 3  per  cent. 

Ash   1  per  cent. 

100  per  cent. 

Cream  cheese  is  highly  prized  for  its  palatability. 
It  is  usually  wrapped  the  same  as  Neufchc/:el  cheese 


78          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME) 

and  sold  in  rectangular  packages  holding  about  one- 
fourth  of  a  pound. 

CLUB   CHEESE 

This  is  an  exceedingly  palatable  cheese  and  is 
made  by  the  following  simple  process :  Grind  up 
with  an  ordinary  meat  grinder  one  pound  of  old 
well  ripened  Cheddar  (American)  cheese  and  mix 
with  one-fifth  pound  of  good  butter.  To  aid  in  mix- 
ing the  cheese  and  butter  they  should  be  run  through 
the  grinder  together.  A  second  grinding  is  neces- 
sary to  give  a  perfect  mixture  free  from  lumps. 

Club  cheese  is  ideal  for  making  sandwiches  and 
is  always  best  when  fresh.  Many  persons  who  can 
not  readily  digest  Cheddar  cheese,  can  eat  Club 
cheese  with  impunity.  This  cheese  is  naturally  very 
rich  and  should  always  be  eaten  with  bread  or 
crackers. 

PIMENTO  CHEESE 

Pimento  cheese  is  American  Neufchatel  cheese 
treated  with  ground  red  peppers.  Usually  from  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  ounce  of  the  pepper  is  used  per 
pound  of  Neufchatel  cheese.  The  peppers  are 
ground  up  fine  by  running  them  through  a  meat 
mincing  machine,  after  which  they  are  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  cheese.  Pimento  cheese  is  very 
popular  with  those  who  like  spicy  foods.  It  is 
packed  in  the  same  manner  as  Neufchatel  cheese. 

A  pimento  flavor  can  be  given  to  Club  cheese  in 
the  same  manner  as  to  Neufchatel  cheese. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
FANCY  DAIRY  DISHES 

Junket.  This  wholesome  and  delicious  dairy  dish 
is  made  as  follows:  To  a  quart  of  sweet  milk  add 
sugar  and  flavoring  to  taste.  Then  heat  the  milk 
to  about  90°  F. ;  add  one  junket  tablet  dissolved  in 
a  tablespoonful  of  cold  water;  stir  vigorously  for  a 
moment  and  then  quickly  pour  into  the  dishes  in 
which  it  is  to  be  served.  Keep  warm  until  thor- 
oughly curdled ;  then  cool  to  50°  F.  or  below. 

In  place  of  the  junket  tablet,  five  drops  of  either 
rennin  or  rennet  extract  may  be  used.  It  is  also 
desirable  to  pasteurize  the  milk,  but  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  heat  it  above  150°  F.  as  a  higher  tem- 
perature interferes  with  the  subsequent  curdling  of 
the  milk. 

Junket  furnishes  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most 
wholesome  of  dairy  dishes,  and  is  relished  by 
nearly  all  people.  Many  persons  with  whom  or- 
dinary milk  does  not  agree,  can  eat  junket  with 
impunity.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  junket  is  con- 
sumed slowly  and  does  not  curdle  in  the  stomach 
like  milk. 

Plain  Bavarian  Cream.  This  is  one  of  the  best 
substitutes  for  ice  cream  and  is  especially  valuable 
where  no  ice  can  be  had  for  making  ice  cream. 

The  method  of  making  Bavarian  cream  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Thoroughly  mix  two  egg  yolks,  three-fourths 
cup  of  sugar  and  a  dash  of  salt.  Stir  slowly  into 
this  mixture  three-fourths  cup  of  scalding  hot  milk ; 
heat  in  double  boiler  and  stir  until  it  begins  to 

79 


80          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS   IN    THE   HOME 

thicken.  Eemove  from  heat  and  stir  in  one  table- 
spoonful  of  best  gelatin  soaked  in  one-fourth  cup 
of  cold  water.  Next  add  flavoring,  which  may  con- 
sist of  one  teaspoonful  of  vanilla  extract  or  the 
juice  of  either  one-half  orange  or  one-fourth  lemon ; 
stir  until  gelatin  is  dissolved,  and  strain.  "When 
cold  and  beginning  to  set,  whip  a  few  minutes  with 
egg  beater  and  then  stir  in  lightly  one  cup  of 
whipped  cream  and  pour  mixture  into  a  mold  to 
harden. 

Chocolate  Bavarian  Cream.  Cook  until  smooth 
two  ounces  of  melted  chocolate,  one-fourth  cup  of 
sugar  and  one-fourth  cup  of  boiling  water.  Add  this 
to  the  milk  used  for  custard  and  proceed  as  in  mak- 
ing plain  Bavarian  cream. 

Charlotte  Russe.  Soak  one  tablespoonful  of  best 
gelatin  in  one-fourth  cup  of  cold  water  and  add  one- 
third  cup  of  scalding  hot  cream;  stir  in  one-third 
cup  of  powdered  sugar  and  one  teaspoonful  of 
vanilla  extract.  Next  fold  in  three  cups  of  whipped 
cream.  Line  mold  with  lady-fingers  and  pour  mix- 
ture into  it  and  chill. 

Charlotte  Russe,  like  the  Bavarian  cream,  is  a 
good  substitute  for  ice  cream,  being  very  rich  and 
palatable. 

Devonshire  Cream.  Pour  a  quart  of  rich,  fresh 
milk  into  a  small  double  boiler  and  keep  cold  for 
about  twelve  hours  to  allow  most  of  the  cream  to 
rise.  Next  gradually  raise  the  temperature  to  about 
180°  P.,  being  careful  not  to  disturb  the  cream  in 
any  way.  The  temperature  must  be  raised  very 


FANCY   DAIRY   DISHES  8l 

slowly,  averaging  about  two  degrees  per  minute. 
Keep  hot  for  a  number  of  hours,  or  until  a  stiff, 
crusty  layer  of  cream  has  formed,  and  then  cool. 
Remove  the  cream  with  a  flat,  perforated  skimmer. 
This  cream  has  a  very  delicious  flavor  and  is  often 
eaten  with  bread,  either  sweetened  or  unsweetened. 
Cream  prepared  in  this  way  is  very  thoroughly 
pasteurized  and  is  therefore  an  entirely  safe  and 
wholesome  food. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
BUTTER  AND  OLEOMARGARINE 

BUTTER 

Food  Value.  Butter  is  composed  principally  of 
butterfat  as  seen  from  the  following  average  compo- 
sition : 

Water   14  per  cent. 

Butterfat 83  per  cent. 

Proteids    1  per  cent. 

Salt 2  per  cent. 

100  per  cent. 

As  a  rule  butter  is  used  for  its  palatability,  that 
is,  as  a  relish  with  other  foods  such  as  bread.  Yet 
butter  has  also  a  very  high  food  value.  In  this  con- 
nection it  should  be  remembered  that  a  pound  of  fat 
has  an  energy  or  heat  value  equal  to  two  and  one- 
fourth  pounds  of  either  proteids  or  carbohydrates. 

Compared  with  other  fats  such  as  lard,  for  ex- 
ample, butter  seems  rather  expensive.  But  in  plac- 
ing a  value  upon  butter  it  is  necessary  to  give  due 
consideration  to  its  palatability  and  high  degree  of 
digestibility.  The  latter  is  especially  important,  par- 
ticularly with  invalids  and  persons  suffering  from 
weak  digestion. 

Process  of  Manufacture.  The  best  butter  is  made 
by  churning  sour  cream.  The  acidity  adds  flavor 
to  the  butter  and  also  facilitates  churning.  Cream 
should  contain  about  30  per  cent,  butterfat  and  0.5 
per  cent,  acid  when  it  enters  the  churn,  and  the  tem- 
perature should  be  such  as  to  bring  butter  in  about 

82 


BUTTER    AND    OLEOMARGARINE 


thirty-five  minutes.  The  average  churning  tempera- 
ture is  about  58°  F. 

Churning  consists  in  agitating  the  cream,  which 
causes  the  microscopic  fat  globules  to  combine  into 
masses  visible  in  the  churn  as  butter  granules. 
"When  these  granules  are  about  the  size  of  half  a 
pea,  the  buttermilk  is  removed,  the  butter  rinsed 
with  cold  water  and  salt  added  at  the  rate  of  about 
one  ounce  per  pound  of  butter.  The  salt  is  thor- 
oughly worked  through  the  butter  with  a  butter 
ladle,  after  which  it  is  usually  molded  into  rectan- 
gular "prints"  weighing  one  pound. 

Judging  Butter.  Butter  is  briefly  judged  or  scored 
according  to  the  following  score  card: 

BUTTER  SCORE  CARD 


Perfect        Actual  Score 


Flavor..  .  45 


Texture .25 


Color  ...  .15 


Salt 


10 


Package . 
Total . 


100 


Defect 

Light 
Rancid 
Fishy 
Weedy 

Stable 
Unclean 
High  acid 
Bitter 

Poor  grain 
Cloudy  brine 
Too  much  brine 
.  Greasy 

Mottled,  wavy 
White  specks 
Too  high 
Too  light 


[Too  much  salt 
•f  Undissolved  salt 
[Lacks  salt 

f  Dirty 

!  Poorly  packed 
I  Poorly  nailed 
I  Poorly  lined 


84          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE   HOME) 

Flavor.  Immediately  after  the  sample  of  butter 
is  withdrawn  from  the  package  it  should  be  held 
under  the  nose  to  ascertain  the  quality  of  the  aroma 
(flavor).  Strictly  speaking,  flavor  refers  to  the 
taste.  But  the  use  of  the  term  flavor  in  butter  judg- 
ing usually  includes  both  taste  and  aroma,  the 
emphasis  resting  upon  the  latter. 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  an  ideal  butter  flavor. 
It  may  perhaps  be  likened  to  the  flavor  of  clean,  well 
ripened  cream. 

Light  flavor  is  generally  due  to  churning  cream 
too  sweet.  It  may  be  due  also  to  too  much  washing. 

Rancid  flavor  is  due  chiefly  to  overripened  cream. 
The  age  of  the  milk,  cream  and  butter  is  also  fre- 
quently the  cause  of  rancidity.  Good  butter  exposed 
to  light  and  air  at  ordinary  temperatures  turns  ran- 
cid in  a  very  short  time. 

Weedy  flavors  are  caused  by  cows  feeding  on 
weeds.  Leeks  or  wild  onions  are  frequently  the 
cause  of  very  serious  trouble  when  cows  have  free 
access  to  them.  The  trouble  may  also  be  caused  by 
exposing  milk  and  cream  to  an  atmosphere  charged 
with  objectionable  odors. 

Fishy  flavor,  according  to  L.  A.  Rogers,  is  due  to 
oxidation  which  is  favored  by  a  high  acid  cream  and 
overworking.  The  latter  favors  oxidation  by  in- 
creasing the  amount  of  air  in  butter. 

Stable  flavor  is  caused  by  lack  of  cleanliness  in 
milking,  and  by  keeping  milk  too  long  in  or  near  a 
dirty  stable. 

Unclean  flavors  are  caused  by  dirty  pails,  strain- 
ers, cans  and  general  uncleanliness  in  the  care  and 
handling  of  milk. 


BUTTER    AND   OLEOMARGARINE  85 

High  acid  flavor  is  due  to  oversoured  cream. 

Bitter  flavor  is  caused  by  keeping  cream  too  long 
at  low  temperatures. 

Texture.  An  ideal  texture  is  indicated  by  a  some- 
what granular  appearance  when  a  piece  of  butter  is 
broken,  an  appearance  quite  similar  to  that  of  the 
broken  ends  of  a  steel  rod. 

Brine  refers  to  the  amount  and  character  of  the 
water  in  butter.  It  should  be  as  clear  as  water  and 
not  present  in  such  quantities  as  to  run  off  the  trier. 

Too  much  brine  is  caused  chiefly  by  underworking 
and  by  churning  to  small  granules. 

Cloudy  brine  is  caused  by  churning  at  too  high  a 
temperature  and  also  by  granulating  too  coarse.  In- 
sufficient washing  has  a  tendency  to  produce  a 
cloudy  brine. 

Poor  grain  is  caused  by  overworking  and  over- 
churning;  also  by  too  high  temperatures  in  churn- 
ing and  working. 

Greasy  butter  is  caused  by  overworking  or  by 
handling  at  too  high  temperatures. 

Color.  The  essential  thing  in  color  is  to  have  it 
uniform.  It  should  have  a  little  deeper  shade  than 
that  produced  by  June  pasturage.  Artificial  color- 
ing is  therefore  necessary. 

Mottles  are  discolorations  in  butter  caused  by  the 
uneven  distribution  of  salt. 

White  specks  are  due  either  to  curd  particles  in 
cream  caused  by  overripening  and  lack  of  stirring 
during  ripening,  or  to  dried  and  hardened  cream. 

Salt.  As  with  color,  the  essential  thing  with  salt 
is  to  have  it  evenly  worked  through  the  butter  and 
none  of  it  should  remain  undissolved. 


86          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 

OLEOMARGARINE 

Oleomargarine  is  a  cheap  substitute  for  butter 
and,  on  account  of  its  cheapness,  has  found  extensive 
sale  in  recent  years.  This  product  is  also  known  as 
margarine  or  butterine. 

The  principal  component  of  oleomargarine  is  beef 
fat.  The  lower  grades  contain  a  high  percentage  of 
cottonseed  oil,  while  the  best  grades  contain  some 
butterfat. 

Composition.    In  the  twelfth  report  of  the  Govern- 
ment Census,  the  proportions  of  the  raw  materials 
which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  different 
grades  of  oleomargarine  are  given  as  follows: 
HIGH    GRADE    OLEOMARGARINE 

Oleo  oil 100      pounds 

Neutral  lard    130     pounds 

Butter   95      pounds 

Salt    32      pounds 

Color    00.5  pound 

MEDIUM  HIGH  GRADE  OLEOMARGARINE 

Oleo  oil 315      pounds 

Neutral  lard 500      pounds 

Cream    280     pounds 

Milk    280      pounds 

Salt    120      pounds 

Color    001.5    pounds 

CHEAP  GRADE  OLEOMARGARINE 

Oleo  oil 495        pounds 

Neutral  lard    265        pounds 

Cotton  seed  oil   315        pounds 

Milk   255        pounds 

Salt    120       pounds 

Color  001.25  pounds 


BUTTER    AND   OLEOMARGARINE  87 

Digestibility.  It  has  often  been  claimed  that 
oleomargarine  has  all  the  merits  possessed  by  gen- 
uine butter.  This  claim,  however,  does  not  seem  to 
hold  in  respect  to  digestibility.  Eminent  chemists 
and  food  experts  have  long  contended  that  no  fat 
is  equal  to  butterfat  in  digestibility.  Both  the  phys- 
ical and  chemical  properties  of  butterfat  offer  good 
reason  for  such  belief.  It  has  already  been  learned 
that  butterfat  exists  in  milk  in  an  extremely  finely 
divided  condition  and  that  one  of  the  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  butterfat  is  its  relatively  high  con- 
tent of  soluble  fats  or  fatty  acids.  These  conditions 
undoubtedly  materially  favor  ease  of  digestion.  A 
number  of  recent  experiments  add  much  positive 
evidence  in  support  of  this  belief.  It  has  been 
learned,  for  example,  that  butterfat  is  considerably 
more  nutritious  than  such  fats  as  lard  oil  and  al- 
mond oil,  and  this  superiority  may  be  due  to  a 
higher  degree  of  digestibility. 

Color.  Oleomargarine  has  naturally  a  whitish 
color,  which  is  of  value  in  distinguishing  this 
product  from  butter.  That  some  distinguishing 
mark  is  necessary  is  evinced  by  the  fact  that  a 
great  deal  of  oleomargarine  in  the  past  has  been  sold 
as  butter.  Indeed,  deception  has  been  practiced  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  federal  government,  for  a 
number  of  years,  has  levied  a  heavy  tax  on  every 
pound  of  oleomargarine  colored  in  imitation  of  gen- 
uine butter.  The  result  is  that  comparatively  little 
colored  oleomargarine  is  manufactured  at  the  pres- 
ent time. 


88          MII,K    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 

RENOVATED  OR  PROCESS  BUTTER 

This  is  old,  stale,  rancid  butter  which  has  been 
purified  by  forcing  air  currents  through  the  melted 
fat  and  rechurning  this  mixed  with  milk  or  cream. 
To  protect  the  consumer,  the  law  requires  that 
all  butter  which  has  undergone  this  treatment,  be 
labeled  Process  or  Renovated  Butter.  When  packed 
in  tubs,  the  label  appears  on  the  tub  and  the  dealer 
may  easily  sell  such  butter  to  consumers  as  genuine 
butter.  This  furnishes  an  instance  where  butter  put 
up  in  pound  prints  protects  the  consumer  against  an 
imitation  product. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
COMMON  CHEESE 

CHEDDAR  OR  AMERICAN  CHEESE 
Formerly  the  term  "Cheddar'     was  applied  ex- 
clusively to  what  is  now  commonly  known  as  Amer- 
ican cheese.     This  cheese  belongs  to  the  so-called 
hard  type  of  cheeses. 

Briefly  Cheddar  cheese  is  made  by  precipitat- 
ing the  curd  of  milk  by  means  of  rennet  extract. 
The  curd  is  allowed  to  ferment  until  it  has  reached 
the  right  stage  of  moisture  and  acidity,  when  it  is 
salted  and  then  molded  under  heavy  pressure. 
After  pressing  the  cheese  must  undergo  a  long  and 
careful  curing  or  ripening  process  during  which 
most  of  the  insoluble  curd  is  changed  to  soluble 
products. 

Food  Value.  Cured  Cheddar  cheese  has  an  aver- 
age composition  as  follows: 

Water 34  per  cent. 

Butterfat    34  per  cent. 

Proteids   26  per  cent. 

Sugar,  etc 2  per  cent. 

Ash    4  per  cent. 

100  per  cent. 

From  the  composition  it  is  seen  that  Cheddar 
cheese  is  an  extremely  rich  food,  one  pound  being 
equal  to  about  two  pounds  of  meat.  It  is  a  very 
economical  substitute  for  meat.  In  the  New  York 
City  penny  lunches,  cheese  sandwiches  furnished  the 
largest  amount  of  nutrients  procurable  for  a  penny. 


MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE   HOME 

Owing  to  its  richness,  this  cheese  is  best  adapted  to 
the  diet  of  people  doing  hard  physical  labor. 

While  in  digestibility  Cheddar  cheese  ranks  well 
with  other  staple  foods,  it  is  well  known  that  many 
people  with  weak  stomachs  cannot  readily  digest 
it.  Under  all  conditions  the  cheese  should  be  con- 
sumed with  bulky  foods,  such  as  bread  and  crackers. 
When  eaten  alone  or  in  connection  with  other  rich 
foods,  it  has  a  tendency  to  produce  constipation. 

Important  Qualities.  Age  is  important  in  Ched- 
dar cheese,  because  the  real  cheese  flavor  requires 
about  six  months  to  develop.  Of  even  greater  im- 
portance is  the  softening  of  the  texture  which  also 
follows  with  age.  A  green  or  fresh  cheese  has  a 
tough,  curdy  or  rubbery  texture  which  means  that 
the  casein  is  still  insoluble  and  that  the  cheese  is 
hard  to  digest.  An  ideal  textured  cheese  is  solid  and 
waxy.  A  soft,  pasty  or  sticky  cheese  is  undesirable 
because  it  carries  too  much  moisture.  Corky  cheese 
lacks  moisture,  while  mealy  or  crumbly  cheese  is  the 
result  of  too  much  acid  and,  like  corky  cheese,  is  un- 
desirable. 

Cheese  is  commonly  judged  on  the  basis  of  45 
points  for  flavor,  30  points  for  texture,  10  points  for 
color  and  15  points  for  finish  and  appearance. 

BRICK  AND  SWISS  CHEESE 

These  cheeses  have  essentially  the  same  composi- 
tion and  food  value  as  Cheddar  cheese.  But  the 
methods  of  manufacture  differ  from  the  Cheddar 
process,  which  accounts  for  the  difference  in  flavor 
and  texture. 


COMMON    CHEESE  91 

The  texture  of  these  cheeses  must  be  mellow,  waxy 
and  plastic  like  that  of  Cheddar  cheese,  but  more  or 
less  porous.  In  brick  cheese  small,  irregular  open- 
ings are  characteristic,  while  large,  smooth  round 
holes  are  typical  of  the  best  Swiss  cheese. 

Swiss  and  brick  cheese,  like  Cheddar,  must  under- 
go a  thorough  curing  process  to  develop  flavor  and 
to  break  down  the  insoluble  casein  into  soluble  prod- 
ucts. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
PRODUCTION  OF  CLEAN  WHOLESOME  MILK 

During  the  past  few  years  a  great  campaign  has 
been  carried  on  in  the  interest  of  cleaner  milk,  and 
while  great  improvements  have  followed  this,  there 
is  still  a  great  deal  of  unsanitary  milk  placed  upon 


Figure  15 — A  sanitary  cow  stable 

the  market.  The  essential  steps  in  securing  clean, 
wholesome  milk  are  briefly  discussed  in  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs. 

Clean,  Healthy  Cows.  The  cow's  health  is  of 
prime  importance,  and  all  milk  from  cows  affected 
with  any  kind  of  disease  should  be  rigidly  excluded 
from  the  dairy. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  the  cow  is  the  main 
source  of  dirt  in  milk.  The  rubbing  of  the  milker 
against  her  and  the  shaking  of  the  udder  during 
milking,  will  dislodge  numerous  dust  particles  and 
hair  and  these  are  liable  to  get  into  the  milk  unless 
special  precautions  are  taken  to  keep  them  out. 

92 


PRODUCTION    OF    CLEAN    WHOLESOME    MILK 


93 


When  we  consider  that  every  dust  particle  and 
every  hair  that  drops  into  the  milk  may  add  hun- 
dreds, thousands,  or  even  millions  of  bacteria  to  it, 
we  realize  the  importance  of  taking  every  precaution 
to  guard  against  contamination  from  this  source. 

To  keep  cows  as  free  as  possible  from  loose  hair, 
dust  and  manure  particles,  they  should  be  carded 
and  brushed  regularly.  This  should  be  done  at 
least  an  hour  before  milking  to  avoid  dust.  Five 
to  ten  minutes  before  the  cow  is  milked  her  udder 
and  flanks  should  be  gently  washed  with  clean,  tepid 
water,  by  using  a  clean  sponge  or  cloth.  This  will 
allow  sufficient  time  for  any  adhering  drops  of 
water  to  drip  off,  at  the  same  time  it  will  keep  the 


Figure    1C — Clean    milking 


94          MILK    AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 

udder  and  flanks  sufficiently  moist  to  prevent  dis- 
lodgment  of  dust  particles  and  hair  during  milking. 

Cows  should  be  kept  only  in  clean,  light,  venti- 
lated stables  and  must  be  turned  out  daily  for  exer- 
cise excepting  in  the  most  inclement  weather. 

The  Milkers.  Clothes  which  have  been  worn  in  the 
field  are  not  suitable  for  milking  purposes.  Every 
milker  should  be  provided  with  a  clean  suit  con- 
sisting of  cap,  jacket  and  trousers.  Milkers  should 
also  wash  and  dry  their  hands  before  milking,  and, 
above  all,  keep  them  dry  during  milking. 

Much  disease  transmitted  through  milk  has  had 
its  origin  in  diseased  milkers.  The  health  of  the 
milker  is  therefore  a  matter  of  prime  importance. 

Milk  Vessels.  All  tin  ware  used  in  the  handling 
of  milk  should  be  made  with  as  few  seams  as  pos- 


Figure  17  Figure  18 

Unflushed  seam  Flushed  seam 

sible.  Wherever  seams  occur,  they  should  be  flushed 
with  solder.  Unflushed  seams  are  difficult  to  clean 
and  as  a  rule  afford  good  breeding  places  for  bac- 
teria. Figure  17  illustrates  the  character  of  the 


PRODUCTION    OF    CLEAN    WHOLESOME    MILK          95 

unflushed  seam ;  Figure  18  shows  a  flushed  seam 
which  fully  illustrates  its  value. 

Figure  19  illustrates  a  modern  sanitary  milk  pail. 
The  value  of  a  partially  closed  pail  is  evident  from 

the  reduced  opening,  which 
serves  to  keep  out  many  bac- 
teria and  much  dirt  that  would 
otherwise  drop  into  the  pail 
during  milking. 

All  utensils  used  in  the  han- 
dling   of    milk    should    be    as 
nearly   sterile    as   possible.     A 
very  desirable  method  of  clean- 
19  ing  them  is  as  follows: 

Covered  milk  pail  T-..  .  .,, 

First,    rinse    with    warm    or 

cold  water.  Second,  scrub  writh  moderately  hot 
water  containing  some  washing  powder.  The  wash- 
ing should  be  done  with  a  brush  rather  than  cloth 
because  the  bristles  enter  into  crevices  which  the 
cloth  cannot  possibly  reach.  Furthermore,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  keep  the  cloth  clean.  Third,  after  rinsing, 
scald  thoroughly  with  steam  or  hot  water.  After 
scalding,  the  utensils  should  be  inverted  upon  shelves 
without  wiping  and  allowed  to  remain  so  until  ready 
to  use.  This  will  leave  the  vessels  in  a  practically 
sterile  condition.  Fourth,  if  it  is  possible  to  turn  the 
inside  of  the  vessels  to  the  sun  in  a  place  where 
there  is  no  dust,  then  it  is  desirable  to  expose  the 
utensils  during  the  day  to  the  strong  germicidal 
action  of  the  direct  sun's  rays. 

Flies.    Flies  not  only  constitute  a  prolific  but  also 
a  dangerous  source  of  milk  contamination.     These 


96          MILk   AND    MILK    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    HOME 

pests  visit  places  of  the  worst  description  and  their 
presence  in  a  dairy  suggests  a  disregard  for  cleanli- 
ness. Of  414  flies  examined,  the  average  number  of 
bacteria  carried  per  fly  was  one  and  a  quarter  mil- 
lions. Flies  should  be  rigidly  excluded  from  all 
places  where  they  are  apt  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  milk. 

Other  Conditions.  Cows,  of  course,  should  have 
pure  water  and  clean  wholesome  feed.  Highly  fer- 
mented brewers'  grains  and  strong  weeds  are  es- 
pecially objectionable.  The  water  of  ponds  and 
stagnant  streams  is  also  harmful.  Not  only  is  such 
water  injurious  to  the  health  of  cows,  but  by  wad- 
ing in  it  they  become  contaminated  with  numer- 
ous undesirable  bacteria,  some  of  which  may  later 
find  their  way  into  the  milk. 

Clean  stables,  clean  barnyards  and  clean  bedding 
must  be  provided  to  keep  the  cows  clean. 

The  details  considered  in  the  production  of  clean, 
wholesome  milk  are  shown  in  the  following  score 
card,  prepared  by  the  Official  Dairy  Instructor's 
Association  and  used  by  the  federal  government. 
In  this  score  card  40  points  are  allowed  for  equip- 
ment and  60  points  for  methods,  in  producing  milk. 


PRODUCTION    OF   CLEAN    WHOLESOME    MILK 


97 


SCORE  CARD 


EQUIPMENT 

SCORE 

Perfect     Allowed 

COWS 
Health    

6 

2 

2 
2 

2 
4 

4 

3 
3 

1 
1 

3 

1 

1 
1 

0 

m 

ft 

Apparently  in  good  health  

.1 

If   tested   with   tuberculin   once   a   year   and    no 
tuberculosis  is  found,  or  if  tested  once  in  six 
months  and  all  reacting  animals  removed....  5 
(If  tested  only  once  a  year  and  reacting  animals 
found  and  removed,  2.) 
Comfort  

Bedding    

1 



Temperature  of  stable  

1 

Foo'l   (clean  and  wholesome)  

Water   

Clean  and   fresh    

1 

Convenient  and  abundant   

1 

STABLE3 
Location  of  stable  

Well  drained  

1 



Free  from  contaminating  surroundings. 

1 

Construction  of  stable  

Tight,  sound  floor  and  proper  gutter.  .  . 

o 

Smooth,  tight  walls  and  ceiling  

! 

Proper  stall,  tie  and  manger  

1 

I  ight.  four  sq.  ft.  of  glass  per  cow  

(Three  sq.  ft..  3;  2  sq.  ft.,  2;  1  sq.  ft.,  1. 
for  uneven  distribution.) 
Ventilation  :    Automatic  system  

Deduct 

1 

Cubic  feet  of  space  for  cow;  500  to  l.oon 
(Less  than  500  ft.,  2;  less  than  400  ft., 
than  300  ft.,  0;  over  1,000  ft.,  0.) 

UTENSILS 

Construction  and  condition  of  utensils.... 

feet  
1  ;   lees 

(Clean,  convenient  and  abundant.) 
Small-top  milking  pail     

Facilities  for  hot  water  or  ?team  

(Should  be  in  milk  house,  not  in  kitchen 

.) 

flpfiii   mil  kin"  mi  its 

MILK  ROOM 

T  oputinn   of  milk   room 

Free  from  contaminating  surroundings.. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Total 

40 

98 


MILK   AND    MILK   PRODUCTS    IN    THE   HOME 


SCORE  CARD— Continued 


METHODS 


SCORE 


Perfect   I  Allowed 


COWS 


Cleanliness  of  cows  

STABLES 

Cleanliness  of  stables  

Floor  2 

Walls  1 

Ceiling  and  ledges 1 

Mangers  and  partitions 1 

Windows  1 

Stable  at  milking  time 

Barnyard  clean  and  well  drained 

Removal  of  manure  daily  to  field  or  proper  pit ... 
(To  50  feet  from  stable,  1.) 

MILK  ROOM 
Cleanliness  of  milk  room 

UTENSILS  AND  MILKING 

Care  and  cleanliness  of  utensils 

Thoroughly  washed  and  sterilized  in  live  steam 

for  30  minutes 5 

(Thoroughly  washed  and  placed  over  steam  jet. 
4;  thoroughly  washed  and  scalded  with  boiling 
water,  3;  thoroughly  washed,  not  scalded,  2.) 

Inverted  in  pure  air 3 

Cleanliness  of  milking  

Clean,  dry  hands  3 

Udders  washed  and  dried 6 

(Udders  cleaned  with  moist  cloth,  4;  cleaned  with 
dry  cloth  at  least  15  minutes  before  milking,  1.) 

HANDLING  THE  MILK 

Cleanliness  of  attendants 

Milk  removed  immediately  from  stable 

Prompt  cooling  (cooled  immediately  after  milking 

each  cow)    

Efficient  cooling;  below  50°  F 

(51°  to  55°,  4;    56°  to   60°,  2.) 
Storage  below  50°  F 

(51°  to  55°,  2;  56°  to  60°,  1.) 
Transportation ;  iced  in  summer 

(For  jacket  or  wet  blanket,  allow  2 ;  dry  blanket 
or  covered  wagon,  1.) 


Total 


8 
6 


6 

2 
2 


3 
8 


1 

2 

2 

5 

3 
3 


60 


Equipment....   +  Methods....  =   ....FINAL  SCORE 
NOTE  1.— If  any  filthy  condition  is  found,  particularly  dirty  utensils, 

the  total  score  shall  be  limited  to  49. 

NOTE  2.— If  the  water  is  exposed  to  dangerous  contamination   or 

there  is  evidence  of  the  presence  of  a  dangerous  disease  in  animals  or 

attendants,  the  score  shall  be  0. 


INDEX 


Page 

Acidity  of  milk 17 

Albumen 10 

American  cheese   89 

Ash  of  milk 10 

Bacteria    19 

beneficial    20 

disease 33 

effect  of  temperature  on  23 

lactic  acid   20 

numbers  in  milk 22 

rapidity  of  growth 19 

spores  of   21 

undesirable    21 

Bavarian  cream  79 

Brick  cheese  90 

Butter   82 

color  of 85 

composition  of  85 

digestibility  of  82,87 

flavor  of  84 

food  value  of 82 

judging  of   83 

manufacture  of   82 

process    88 

renovated  88 

texture  of    85 

Butterfat    11 

Buttermilk,  natural    57 

tablets   61 

Charlotte  Russe  80 

Cheese,  American   89 

brick    90 

club    78 

common 89 

cottage    64 


Page 

cream    77 

Neufchatel   76 

pimento    78 

Swiss   90 

Casein   10 

Certified  milk  27 

Club  cheese 78 

Condensed  milk  53 

Cream .66 

Bavarian    79 

composition  of  66 

Devonshire  80 

food  value  of 67 

homogenizing    69 

judging  of   30 

pasteurization  of 67 

physical  properties  of..  16 

specific   gravity  of 16 

visco    69 

viscosity  of  16 

whipping   of    69 

Cream  cheese  77 

Dairy  thermometer 41 

Devonshire 80 

Diphtheria    epidemics 36 

Enzymes 12 

Evaporated  milk   54 

Ice   cream    71 

chocolate    73 

fruit     ....74 

lemon    73 

manufacture  of   72 

nut   74 

vanilla  .73 


99 


IOO 


INDEX 


Page 
Judging  milk  and  cream. 30 

butter    83 

Junket    79 

Lactic   acid   cultures 59 

Milk  9 

absorbing  powers  of...  17 

acidity  of 17 

bacteria  in 19 

certified    27 

color  of   17 

composition   of    9 

condensed,   sweetened.  .53 

cooling  of 24 

digestibility  of  pasteur- 
ized   ..." 43 

disease   bacteria   of 33 

epidemics  of  35 

evaporated  54 

from  different  breeds . .  14 

from   goats    51 

handling  of  25 

judging  of   30 

market  classes  of 27 

modified    44 

pasteurized    37 

physical   properties   of.  16 
production  of  clean ....  94 

score  card  for 30 

solids   12 

sour   56 

specific   gravity  of 16 

sugar   10 


Page 

use  of   15 

value  of  clean 15 

vessels    94 

vessels,  cleaning  .of.... 95 
viscosity  of  16 

Neufchatel  cheese 76 

Oleomargarine    86 

color  of   87 

composition     86 

digestibility  of  87 

Pasteurization 37 

necessity  for 37 

by  milk  dealers 38 

advantages  of,  in  home. 41 
inefficient  42 

Pimento  cheese   78 

Scarlet  fever  epidemics . .  36 

Septic   sore  throat 36 

Skimmilk   63 

sour   58 

Specific  gravity  of  milk..  16 
Swiss  cheese 90 

Tuberculosis    34 

Typhoid  epidemics   36 

Viscogen    67 


Whey,  value  of . . , 
preparation  of  . 


,50 
,63 


Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
ThK  book  .  DUE  on  ^  ]ast 


fli 

3JOct'52CT 

OCT281952- 


REC'D  LD 

[JOV  22  1959 


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fit    ^ 


D  21-100"-",'49(B7146sl6)476 


VB  15130 


M     198 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


